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Related Concept Videos

Radiation: Applications01:17

Radiation: Applications

The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives almost all its energy from the radiation of the Sun and reflects some of it into outer space. Dark space is very cold, about 3 K, so Earth radiates energy into it. For instance, heat transfer occurs from soil and grasses, the rate of which can be so rapid that frost can occur on clear summer evenings, even in warm latitudes.
The average...
Absorption of Radiation01:05

Absorption of Radiation

The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation:
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution: Problem Solving01:20

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution: Problem Solving

Individual molecules in a gas move in random directions, but a gas containing numerous molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds, which is known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, f(v).
This distribution function f(v) is defined by saying that the expected number N (v1,v2) of particles with speeds between v1 and v2 is given by
Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving01:09

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving

The radiation pressure applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface equals the energy density of the wave. The wave's momentum also gets transferred to the surface when an electromagnetic wave is entirely absorbed by it. The rate at which momentum is transmitted to an absorbing surface perpendicular to the propagation direction equals the force on the surface.
The average value of the rate of momentum transfer divided by the absorbing area represents the average force per...
Quantifying Heat02:46

Quantifying Heat

Thermal Energy Microscopically, thermal energy is the kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules. Temperature is a quantitative measure of “hot” or “cold”, which depends on the amount of thermal energy. When the atoms and molecules in an object are moving or vibrating quickly, they have a higher average kinetic energy (KE) (or higher thermal energy), and the object is perceived as “hot”, or it is described as being at a higher temperature. When the atoms and...
Momentum And Radiation Pressure01:20

Momentum And Radiation Pressure

An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum. The force accounts for the wave's radiation pressure exerted on the object. Maxwell's prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The measuring instrument had mirrors suspended from a fiber kept inside a glass container. Nichols...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 12, 2026

A Method of Trigonometric Modelling of Seasonal Variation Demonstrated with Multiple Sclerosis Relapse Data
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Milankovitch radiation variations: a quantitative evaluation.

D M Shaw, W L Donn

    Science (New York, N.Y.)
    |December 13, 1968
    PubMed
    Summary

    Milankovitch cycles, which alter Earth's orbital parameters, show a minimal impact on surface temperatures. This thermodynamic modeling suggests these cycles alone are insufficient to trigger major glacial periods.

    Area of Science:

    • Climatology
    • Paleoclimatology
    • Thermodynamics

    Background:

    • Earth's climate is influenced by long-term variations in its orbital parameters, known as Milankovitch cycles.
    • Understanding the magnitude of temperature changes driven by these cycles is crucial for paleoclimate reconstructions.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To quantitatively determine the surface temperature changes induced by Milankovitch insolation variations.
    • To assess the potential of Milankovitch cycles to trigger glacial climates using a thermodynamic model.

    Main Methods:

    • Utilized the Adem thermodynamic model to simulate surface temperature responses.
    • Calculated insolation variations based on Milankovitch cycles for specific latitudes (25°N and 65°N).

    Main Results:

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    • Simulated mean coolings of 3.1°C at 25°N and 2.7°C at 65°N under extreme Milankovitch conditions.
    • A mean cooling of only 1.4°C was observed at 65°N during radiation minimums, indicating a limited temperature response.

    Conclusions:

    • The Milankovitch effect on surface temperature appears relatively small.
    • These findings suggest that Milankovitch cycles alone may not be sufficient to initiate major glacial periods.