Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 12, 2026

Limited Bedding and Nesting as a Model for Early-Life Adversity in Mice
Published on: July 12, 2024
Parental punitive discipline, negative life events and gene-environment interplay in the development of externalizing
T M M Button1, J Y F Lau, B Maughan
1Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0447, USA. tanya.button@colorado.edu
Background:
To investigate the extent to which three putative 'environmental' risk factors, maternal punitive discipline (MPD), paternal punitive discipline (PPD) and negative life events (NLEs), share genetic influences with, and moderate the heritability of, externalizing behavior.
Method:
The sample consisted of 2647 participants, aged 12-19 years, from the G1219 and G1219Twins longitudinal studies. Externalizing behavior was measured using the Youth Self-Report, MPD, PPD and exposure to NLEs were assessed using the Negative Sanctions Scale and the Life Event Scale for Adolescents respectively.
Result:
Genetic influences overlapped for externalizing behavior and each 'environmental' risk, indicating gene-environment correlation. When controlling for the gene-environment correlation, genetic variance decreased, and both shared and non-shared environmental influences increased, as a function of MPD. Genetic variance increased as a function of PPD, and for NLEs the only interaction effect was on the level of non-shared environment influence unique to externalizing behavior.
Conclusion:
The magnitude of the influence of genetic risk on externalizing behavior is contextually dependent, even after controlling for gene-environment correlation.
Related Concept Videos
Punishment
Punishment can be positive or negative. Positive punishment involves adding an undesirable stimulus, such as scolding, to decrease a behavior. Negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus, such as taking away a favorite toy, to decrease behavior.
Gene-Environment Interactions
Conduct Disorder
Human Genetics
The complex relationship between genetics and psychology is observable through common biological components such...
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian Parenting
This style is strict and controlling, with little room for open dialogue. Authoritarian parents demand obedience and often enforce rules with minimal warmth. Children raised this way may lack social skills and initiative, usually comparing themselves to others unfavorably.
Authoritative Parenting
This...
Causes of Social Behavior III: Biological and Environmental Influences

