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Updated: Aug 4, 2026

Long-term Behavioral and Reproductive Consequences of Embryonic Exposure to Low-dose Toxicants
Published on: March 6, 2018
Mathematical modeling of reproductive and developmental toxic effects for quantitative risk assessment
R L Kodell1, R B Howe, J J Chen
1National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas 72079.
Abstract:
A new mathematical dose-response model for reproductive and developmental risk assessment is proposed. The model includes the possibility of an exposure threshold as well as a litter-size effect. Correlation of responses of offspring from the same litter is taken into account through the use of the beta-binomial distribution. Confidence limits for low-dose extrapolation are based on the asymptotic distribution of the likelihood ratio. An empirical comparison of the proposed procedure to that of Rai and Van Ryzin demonstrates the improvement that can be achieved with the new procedure.
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