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Network Covalent Solids02:18

Network Covalent Solids

Network covalent solids contain a three-dimensional network of covalently bonded atoms as found in the crystal structures of nonmetals like diamond, graphite, silicon, and some covalent compounds, such as silicon dioxide (sand) and silicon carbide (carborundum, the abrasive on sandpaper). Many minerals have networks of covalent bonds.
To break or to melt a covalent network solid, covalent bonds must be broken. Because covalent bonds are relatively strong, covalent network solids are typically...
Covalent Bonds01:29

Covalent Bonds

When two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells they create a covalent bond. An atom’s electronegativity—the force with which shared electrons are pulled towards an atom—determines how the electrons are shared. Molecules formed with covalent bonds can be either polar or nonpolar. Atoms with similar electronegativities form nonpolar covalent bonds; the electrons are shared equally. Atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally, creating polar bonds.A Covalent...
Covalent Bonds01:08

Covalent Bonds

Overview
When two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells, they create a covalent bond. An atom's electronegativity—the force with which shared electrons are pulled towards an atom—determines how the electrons are shared. Molecules formed with covalent bonds can be either polar or nonpolar. Atoms with similar electronegativities form nonpolar covalent bonds; the electrons are shared equally. Atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally, creating polar bonds.
Molecular and Ionic Solids02:54

Molecular and Ionic Solids

Crystalline solids are divided into four types: molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network based on the type of constituent units and their interparticle interactions.
Molecular Solids
Molecular crystalline solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine, are solids that are composed of neutral molecules as their constituent units. These molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces such as London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, or hydrogen bonds, which...
Solid–Solid Solutions01:24

Solid–Solid Solutions

The temperature-composition phase diagram of two solids, A and B, which are immiscible in the solid phase but form miscible liquids, shows that when the temperature is low, these two exist as separate, pure solids (A and B). As the temperature increases, they transition into a single-phase liquid solution where A and B coexist. Moving from point a1 to a2 in the phase diagram, the composition changes such that solid B begins to separate from the solution, enriching the remaining liquid with A.
The Equilibrium Constant03:10

The Equilibrium Constant

Consider the oxidation of sulfur dioxide:

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 11, 2026

Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotube with Doped Co and N Atoms and its Catalytic Applications in Hydrogen Production
08:40

Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotube with Doped Co and N Atoms and its Catalytic Applications in Hydrogen Production

Published on: December 6, 2021

Experimental realization of the covalent solid carbon nitride.

C Niu, Y Z Lu, C M Lieber

    Science (New York, N.Y.)
    |July 16, 1993
    PubMed
    Summary

    Researchers synthesized novel carbon-nitrogen (C-N) thin films using pulsed laser ablation and an atomic nitrogen source. The resulting material shows potential for superhard applications due to its unique beta-C(3)N(4) structure.

    Area of Science:

    • Materials Science
    • Solid-State Chemistry
    • Thin Film Deposition

    Background:

    • Carbon-nitrogen (C-N) materials are of interest for advanced applications.
    • Theoretical predictions suggest beta-C(3)N(4) could be a superhard material.
    • Experimental synthesis of such materials remains a challenge.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To synthesize novel C-N thin film materials.
    • To characterize the composition, bonding, and structure of the synthesized films.
    • To investigate the potential of the synthesized material for superhard applications.

    Main Methods:

    • Pulsed laser ablation of graphite targets.
    • Use of an intense atomic nitrogen source for film deposition.
    • Rutherford backscattering spectrometry for elemental analysis.

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    Synthesis and Functionalization of Nitrogen-doped Carbon Nanotube Cups with Gold Nanoparticles as Cork Stoppers
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    Last Updated: Jul 11, 2026

    Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotube with Doped Co and N Atoms and its Catalytic Applications in Hydrogen Production
    08:40

    Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotube with Doped Co and N Atoms and its Catalytic Applications in Hydrogen Production

    Published on: December 6, 2021

    Synthesis and Performance Characterizations of Transition Metal Single Atom Catalyst for Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
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    Synthesis and Functionalization of Nitrogen-doped Carbon Nanotube Cups with Gold Nanoparticles as Cork Stoppers
    11:58

    Synthesis and Functionalization of Nitrogen-doped Carbon Nanotube Cups with Gold Nanoparticles as Cork Stoppers

    Published on: May 13, 2013

  • Photoelectron spectroscopy for chemical bonding analysis.
  • Electron diffraction for structural determination.

    • Main Results:

    • C-N thin films were successfully prepared with tunable nitrogen content up to 40%.
    • Rutherford backscattering confirmed high nitrogen incorporation.
    • Photoelectron spectroscopy indicated unpolarized covalent C-N bonds.
    • Electron diffraction identified the crystallite structure as beta-C(3)N(4).
    • The synthesized C-N solids exhibited thermal robustness and hardness.

    Conclusions:

    • The study experimentally synthesized beta-C(3)N(4), a theoretically predicted superhard material.
    • The synthesis method offers control over nitrogen content and film properties.
    • The novel C-N material holds promise for future research and engineering applications.