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Related Concept Videos

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition02:33

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...
Phase Diagrams02:39

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. These diagrams indicate the physical states that exist under specific conditions of pressure and temperature and also provide the pressure dependence of the phase-transition temperatures (melting points, sublimation points, boiling points). Regions or areas labeled solid, liquid, and gas represent single phases, while lines or curves represent...
The Carbon Cycle01:14

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic matter on Earth, and is recycled through the ecosystem in two primary processes: one in which carbon is exchanged among living organisms, and one in which carbon is cycled over long periods of time through fossilized organic remains, weathering of rocks, and volcanic activity. Human activities, including increased agricultural practices and the burning of fossil fuels, has greatly affected the balance of the natural carbon cycle.
States of Water01:23

States of Water

Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the intermolecular forces that draw molecules together and ii) the kinetic energy that leads to movements that pull them apart.
Water freezes when the intermolecular forces are greater than the kinetic energy. Unlike most other substances, water is less dense in its solid state than in its liquid state. This is because each water molecule can form...
Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing02:39

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy becomes large enough to partially overcome the forces holding the molecules or ions of the solid in their fixed positions, and the solid begins the process of transitioning to the liquid state or melting. At this point, the temperature of the solid stops rising, despite the continual input of heat, and it remains constant until all of the solid is...
Carbonation Shrinkage01:24

Carbonation Shrinkage

Atmospheric CO2 penetrates the concrete's pores and, in the presence of moisture, forms carbonic acid, which then reacts with calcium hydroxide in the hydrated cement, forming calcium carbonate. This process reduces the concrete's volume and is termed carbonation shrinkage.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 11, 2026

Laser-Induced Fluorescence Emission (L.I.F.E.) as Novel Non-Invasive Tool for In-Situ Measurements of Biomarkers in Cryospheric Habitats
13:38

Laser-Induced Fluorescence Emission (L.I.F.E.) as Novel Non-Invasive Tool for In-Situ Measurements of Biomarkers in Cryospheric Habitats

Published on: October 26, 2019

Summer ice and carbon dioxide.

G Kukla, J Gavin

    Science (New York, N.Y.)
    |October 30, 1981
    PubMed
    Summary

    Antarctic sea ice extent significantly decreased from 1973-1980. Earlier 20th-century ice conditions were heavier, and recent temperatures align with carbon dioxide increase predictions.

    Area of Science:

    • Climatology
    • Glaciology
    • Environmental Science

    Background:

    • Historical data from the 1930s indicate heavier Antarctic summer pack ice conditions compared to recent averages.
    • Satellite imagery reveals a substantial decrease in Antarctic pack ice extent between 1973 and 1980.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To analyze changes in Antarctic pack ice extent and Northern Hemisphere surface air temperatures.
    • To compare observed climate changes with predictions related to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.

    Main Methods:

    • Analysis of satellite imagery for Antarctic pack ice extent from 1973-1980.
    • Compilation of historical climate data from atlases and ship reports from the 1930s.
    • Comparison of surface air temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere during two distinct periods (1934-1938 and 1974-1978).

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    Achieving Moderate Pressures in Sealed Vessels Using Dry Ice As a Solid CO2 Source
    06:26

    Achieving Moderate Pressures in Sealed Vessels Using Dry Ice As a Solid CO2 Source

    Published on: August 17, 2018

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    Laser-Induced Fluorescence Emission (L.I.F.E.) as Novel Non-Invasive Tool for In-Situ Measurements of Biomarkers in Cryospheric Habitats
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    Laser-Induced Fluorescence Emission (L.I.F.E.) as Novel Non-Invasive Tool for In-Situ Measurements of Biomarkers in Cryospheric Habitats

    Published on: October 26, 2019

    Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine
    08:16

    Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

    Published on: March 13, 2017

    Achieving Moderate Pressures in Sealed Vessels Using Dry Ice As a Solid CO2 Source
    06:26

    Achieving Moderate Pressures in Sealed Vessels Using Dry Ice As a Solid CO2 Source

    Published on: August 17, 2018

    Main Results:

    • A decrease of 2.5 million square kilometers in Antarctic pack ice extent was observed between 1973 and 1980.
    • Surface air temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere's melting snow belt were higher in 1974-1978 than in 1934-1938.
    • Observed temperature and ice cover changes qualitatively align with the predicted effects of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.

    Conclusions:

    • While observed climate trends show qualitative agreement with carbon dioxide increase impacts, a definitive cause-and-effect relationship cannot yet be established.
    • Natural climate variability and other unidentified processes may also contribute to the observed changes in snow, ice cover, and temperature.