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States of Water

States of Water

Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the intermolecular forces that draw molecules together and ii) the kinetic energy that leads to movements that pull them apart.
Water freezes when the intermolecular forces are greater than the kinetic energy. Unlike most other substances, water is less dense in its solid state than in its liquid state. This is because each water molecule can form...

IR Spectroscopy: Molecular Vibration Overview

IR Spectroscopy: Molecular Vibration Overview

When Infrared (IR) radiation passes through a covalently bonded molecule, the bonds transition from lower to higher vibrational levels. The fundamental vibrational motions that result in infrared absorption can be classified as stretching or bending vibrations.
Stretching vibrations are vibrational motions that occur along the bond line, changing the bond length or distance between two bonded atoms. They are further distinguished as symmetric or asymmetric. In symmetric stretching, the...

IR Spectrum Peak Broadening: Hydrogen Bonding

IR Spectrum Peak Broadening: Hydrogen Bonding

The vibrational frequency of a bond is directly proportional to its bond strength. As a result, stronger bonds vibrate at higher frequencies, while weaker bonds vibrate at lower frequencies. The stretching vibration of the strong O–H bond in alcohols and phenols (very dilute solution or gas phase) appears as a sharp peak at 3600–3650 cm−1.
However, the extent of hydrogen bonding influences the observed stretching frequency and band broadening. Intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bonding...

IR Spectroscopy: Hooke's Law Approximation of Molecular Vibration

IR Spectroscopy: Hooke's Law Approximation of Molecular Vibration

A covalently bonded heteronuclear diatomic molecule can be modeled as two vibrating masses connected by a spring. The vibrational frequency of the bond can be expressed using an equation derived from Hooke's law, which describes how the force applied to stretch or compress a spring is proportional to the displacement of the spring. In this case, the atoms behave like masses, and the bond acts like a spring.
According to Hooke's law, the vibrational frequency is directly proportional to the...

Hess's Law

Hess's Law

There are two ways to determine the amount of heat involved in a chemical change: measure it experimentally, or calculate it from other experimentally determined enthalpy changes. Some reactions are difficult, if not impossible, to investigate and make accurate measurements for experimentally. And even when a reaction is not hard to perform or measure, it is convenient to be able to determine the heat involved in a reaction without having to perform an experiment.

Gas Solubility

Gas Solubility

Gas solubility in liquids forms liquid-gas solutions, such as soft drinks, where carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, and the ocean, where the solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide supports marine life. The ability of oceans to dissolve gases impacts weather conditions in the troposphere.However, gas-liquid interactions vary. For instance, hydrogen chloride gas is highly soluble in water, while oxygen's solubility is much lower. Because these solutions are non-ideal, Raoult’s law, which...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 11, 2026

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets

Published on: May 26, 2021

Mars: Mariner 9 Spectroscopic Evidence for H2O Ice Clouds.

R J Curran, B J Conrath, R A Hanel

Science (New York, N.Y.)

|October 26, 1973

Summary

Spectral analysis reveals water-ice clouds on Mars. Mariner 9 data indicates clouds composed of H(2)O ice particles with a 2.0 micrometer mean radius and a mass of 5 x 10(-5) grain/cm²

Area of Science:

Planetary Science
Spectroscopy
Atmospheric Science

Background:

Mariner 9 mission provided crucial data for Martian atmospheric studies.
Understanding Martian clouds is key to deciphering the planet's climate and water cycle.

Purpose of the Study:

To identify spectral features of Martian clouds using Mariner 9 data.
To determine the physical properties of H(2)O ice clouds in the Tharsis Ridge region.

Main Methods:

Analysis of spectral data from the Mariner 9 interferometer spectrometer.
Comparison of observed spectra with theoretical radiative transfer models for ice clouds.
Modeling variations in particle size distribution and integrated cloud mass.

Main Results:

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Measuring Dissolved Methane in Aquatic Ecosystems Using An Optical Spectroscopy Gas Analyzer

Measuring Dissolved Methane in Aquatic Ecosystems Using An Optical Spectroscopy Gas Analyzer

Published on: July 26, 2024

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Last Updated: Jul 11, 2026

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets

Published on: May 26, 2021

Measuring Dissolved Methane in Aquatic Ecosystems Using An Optical Spectroscopy Gas Analyzer

Measuring Dissolved Methane in Aquatic Ecosystems Using An Optical Spectroscopy Gas Analyzer

Published on: July 26, 2024

Observed spectral features were definitively identified as water-ice (H(2)O ice).
The Tharsis Ridge H(2)O ice clouds consist of particles with a mean radius of approximately 2.0 micrometers.
The integrated cloud mass was determined to be 5 x 10(-5) grain per square centimeter.

Conclusions:

The presence and composition of water-ice clouds on Mars have been confirmed.
The physical characteristics of these clouds provide insights into Martian atmospheric processes.
This study refines our understanding of water distribution in the Martian atmosphere.