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Bonding in Metals

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Drüde called the “Electron Sea Model”.

Properties of Transition Metals

Properties of Transition Metals

Transition metals are defined as those elements that have partially filled d orbitals. As shown in Figure 1, the d-block elements in groups 3–12 are transition elements. The f-block elements, also called inner transition metals (the lanthanides and actinides), also meet this criterion because the d orbital is partially occupied before the f orbitals.

Degree of Unsaturation

Degree of Unsaturation

The degree of unsaturation (U), or index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD), is defined as the difference in the number of pairs of hydrogen atoms between the compound and the acyclic alkane with the same number of carbon atoms. Each double bond or ring costs two hydrogen atoms compared to a saturated analog and results in one degree of unsaturation.
The degree of unsaturation for hydrocarbons is U = (2C + 2 − H) / 2, where C is the number of carbon atoms and H is the number of hydrogen atoms.

Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin State Population Distribution

Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin State Population Distribution

Near absolute zero temperatures, in the presence of a magnetic field, the majority of nuclei prefer the lower energy spin-up state to the higher energy spin-down state. As temperatures increase, the energy from thermal collisions distributes the spins more equally between the two states. The Boltzmann distribution equation gives the ratio of the number of spins predicted in the spin −½ (N−) and spin +½ (N+) states.

Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetism

Materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt consist of magnetic domains, within which the magnetic dipoles are arranged parallel to each other. The magnetic dipoles are rigidly aligned in the same direction within a domain by quantum mechanical coupling among the atoms. This coupling is so strong that even thermal agitation at room temperature cannot break it. The result is that each domain has a net dipole moment. However, some materials have weaker coupling, and are ferromagnetic at lower...

Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability

Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability

In linear magnetic materials, like paramagnets and diamagnets, magnetization is proportional to the magnetic field intensity. The constant of proportionality, a dimensionless number, is called magnetic susceptibility. The value of the susceptibility depends on the type of material.
When diamagnetic materials are placed under an external magnetic field, the moments opposite to the field are induced. Hence, the susceptibility for diamagnets has a minimal negative value of 10-5–10-6. Since...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 28, 2026

Simulation of the Planetary Interior Differentiation Processes in the Laboratory

Simulation of the Planetary Interior Differentiation Processes in the Laboratory

Published on: November 16, 2013

Metal saturation in the upper mantle.

Arno Rohrbach¹, Chris Ballhaus, Ute Golla-Schindler

¹Mineralogisches-Petrologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, 53115 Bonn, Germany. rohrbaa@web.de

|September 28, 2007

Summary

Earth's upper mantle oxidation is a shallow phenomenon, restricted to the uppermost 250 km. Deeper asthenosphere likely contains stable metallic iron, impacting mantle petrology and volatile content.

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Atom Probe Tomography Analysis of Exsolved Mineral Phases

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Last Updated: Apr 28, 2026

Simulation of the Planetary Interior Differentiation Processes in the Laboratory

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Published on: November 16, 2013

Metal-silicate Partitioning at High Pressure and Temperature: Experimental Methods and a Protocol to Suppress Highly Siderophile Element Inclusions

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Atom Probe Tomography Analysis of Exsolved Mineral Phases

Atom Probe Tomography Analysis of Exsolved Mineral Phases

Published on: October 25, 2019

Area of Science:

Geochemistry
Mineral Physics
Geodynamics

Background:

Oxygen fugacity (fO2) is a key variable in mantle petrology, influencing melting, volatile solubility, and rheology.
The uppermost mantle appears oxidized, capable of storing volatiles like H2O and CO2.
It remains uncertain if this oxidized shallow mantle is representative of the entire upper mantle.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the oxygen fugacity and redox state of the deeper asthenosphere.
To determine if metallic iron is stable at depths greater than 250 km within the Earth's mantle.

Main Methods:

High-pressure experimental synthesis of mantle minerals (pyroxene, garnet).
Experiments conducted at pressures exceeding 7 GPa in equilibrium with metallic iron (Fe).
Analysis of ferric iron incorporation into synthesized minerals.

Main Results:

Mantle minerals synthesized at >7 GPa incorporate significant ferric iron when in equilibrium with metallic Fe.
This indicates that the mantle below approximately 250 km depth is reduced enough for (Fe,Ni)-metal to be stable.
The oxidized nature of the upper mantle is likely a shallow phenomenon.

Conclusions:

The Earth's upper mantle is not uniformly oxidized; reduction and metal saturation occur below ~250 km.
Oxidation is restricted to a shallow veneer, impacting our understanding of mantle processes.
This finding revises the model of mantle redox state and its implications for volatile cycling.