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Apoptosis

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is a combination of two Greek words, 'apo' and 'ptosis,' meaning separation and falling off, respectively. Hippocrates used this word to describe gangrene, which was caused due to bandaging of fractured bones. Apoptosis was distinguished from necrosis in 1970 when John Kerr reported observations of morphological changes occurring during apoptosis. During one experiment, he observed that the disruption of blood supply to the liver tissue resulted in a size reduction of the tissue.

Phagocytosis of Apoptotic Cells

Phagocytosis of Apoptotic Cells

Cells undergoing apoptosis form apoptotic bodies that must be removed immediately to prevent inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and necrosis. Phagocytosis is carried out by professional phagocytes such as macrophages or immature dendritic cells. Non-professional phagocytes such as epithelial cells and fibroblasts also take part in this process; however, they are not as effective as professional phagocytes.
Normal cells contain receptors that prevent them from being recognized by phagocytes.

The Extrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

The Extrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

The extrinsic apoptotic pathway is initiated when extracellular death-inducing signals, such as specific cytokines, activate the death receptors expressed on the cell surface. The immune cells involved in this pathway are natural killer cells (NK cells) and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. NK cells are critical in innate immune response, while cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are associated with adaptive immune response. These cells recognize specific receptors expressed on the altered cells and activate...

Cellular Injury V: Apoptosis and Autophagy

Cellular Injury V: Apoptosis and Autophagy

Cells respond to damage and stress through highly coordinated processes that decide whether they survive or undergo controlled self-destruction. Two major pathways involved in this regulation are apoptosis, a type of programmed cell death, and autophagy, a survival mechanism that helps cells adapt to adverse conditions.ApoptosisApoptosis removes aged or injured cells to maintain tissue balance. During this process, the cell shrinks, chromatin condenses and fragments, and membrane-bound...

The Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

The Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

Internal cellular stress, such as cellular injury or hypoxia, triggers intrinsic apoptosis. The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family of proteins are the primary regulators of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. For example, during DNA damage, checkpoint proteins, such as Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM protein) and Checkpoints Factor-2 (Chk2) proteins, are activated. These proteins phosphorylate p53 which further activates pro-apoptotic proteins, such as Bax, Bak, PUMA, and Noxa, and inhibits...

Caspases

Caspases

Caspase, a family of cysteine proteases, serve as effectors in apoptosis. The ced3 gene in C.elegans was first identified to be involved in apoptosis. This gene encodes the ced-3 caspase that is similar to the interleukin-1-beta converting enzyme or ICE in mammals. In addition to apoptosis, caspases also function in the inflammatory response. Inflammatory caspases are essential in activating pro-inflammatory cytokines that recruit immune cells and block the replication of pathogens inside cells.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 10, 2026

Experimental Analysis of Apoptotic Thymocyte Engulfment by Macrophages

Experimental Analysis of Apoptotic Thymocyte Engulfment by Macrophages

Published on: May 24, 2019

How apoptosis got the immune system in shape.

Christine Feig¹, Marcus E Peter

¹The Ben May Department for Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.

European Journal of Immunology

|November 1, 2007

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is crucial for immune system function, development, and maintaining health. Understanding apoptosis reveals its essential role in preventing autoimmune diseases and cancer.

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Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

Published on: December 27, 2016

Detection and Isolation of Apoptotic Bodies to High Purity

Detection and Isolation of Apoptotic Bodies to High Purity

Published on: August 12, 2018

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jul 10, 2026

Experimental Analysis of Apoptotic Thymocyte Engulfment by Macrophages

Experimental Analysis of Apoptotic Thymocyte Engulfment by Macrophages

Published on: May 24, 2019

Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

Published on: December 27, 2016

Detection and Isolation of Apoptotic Bodies to High Purity

Detection and Isolation of Apoptotic Bodies to High Purity

Published on: August 12, 2018

Area of Science:

Immunology
Cell Biology
Developmental Biology

Background:

Cell death, specifically apoptosis, is a fundamental biological process, not inherently detrimental.
Cellular homeostasis is maintained throughout life but is disrupted during aging.
The immune system exhibits dynamic cellular balance, crucial for responding to pathogens.

Purpose of the Study:

To provide a historical overview of apoptosis discovery's impact on immunology.
To highlight the essential roles of apoptosis in immune cell development and function.
To underscore the consequences of dysregulated apoptosis in disease.

Main Methods:

Historical review of scientific literature on apoptosis and immunology.
Analysis of the role of apoptosis in immune cell education (thymus, bone marrow).
Examination of apoptosis mechanisms in cytotoxic T and NK cell-mediated killing.

Main Results:

Apoptosis is integral to normal development and immune system homeostasis.
Apoptosis is vital for eliminating autoreactive cells, establishing self-tolerance.
Dysregulated apoptosis is linked to autoimmune diseases and malignant growth.

Conclusions:

Apoptosis is a cornerstone of immune system function, from development to pathogen response.
Appropriate execution of apoptosis is critical for preventing immune-related pathologies.
The discovery of apoptosis revolutionized the understanding of immune system regulation and disease.