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Spongy Bone

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All bones comprise an outer layer of compact bone, and an interior made up of spongy bone tissue, also called cancellous or trabecular bone. In long bones, spongy bone tissue is mainly found in the interior of the epiphyses (broad ends of the bone).
Spongy bone is more porous, and less dense compared to compact bone. It is composed of concentric lamellae that are arranged irregularly to form the trabecular network. In some bones, the spaces between trabeculae contain red marrow, where...

Bone Structure

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Within the skeletal system, the structure of a bone, or osseous tissue, can be exemplified in a long bone, like the femur, where there are two types of osseous tissue: cortical and cancellous.

Bone Remodeling

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Bone remodeling is a continuous and balanced process of bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. In adults, it helps maintain bone mass and calcium homeostasis. While mechanical stress can stimulate turnover as part of the normal maintenance and reparative process, several hormones also regulate bone remodeling.

Compact Bone

Compact Bone

Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and concentration vary based on the bone's overall function.
Compact bone, also called cortical bone, is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue. It is found under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of long bones, where it provides support and protection. The microscopic structural unit of compact bone is called an osteon, or haversian system. Each osteon is composed of concentric rings of calcified...

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The appendicular skeleton, particularly the upper and lower limbs, is primarily made of long and short bones. The long...

Bone Remodeling and Repair

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Osteoclasts are cells responsible for bone resorption and remodeling. They originate from hematopoietic progenitor cells present in the bone marrow. Numerous progenitor cells fuse to form multinucleated cells, each with 10-20 nuclei. A single osteoclast has a diameter of 150 to 200 µM. These cells have ruffled borders that break down the underlying bone tissue and release minerals such as calcium into the blood in bone resorption. Osteoclasts cling to bones with their ruffled edges during bone...

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Related Experiment Video

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Multimodal Approach to Assess Bone Regeneration and Scaffold Performance

Multimodal Approach to Assess Bone Regeneration and Scaffold Performance

Published on: February 13, 2026

Investigation of cancellous bone architecture using structural optimisation.

Hyunsun A Kim¹, Paul J Clement, James L Cunningham

¹Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. H.A.Kim@bath.ac.uk

Journal of Biomechanics

|November 21, 2007

Summary

Structural optimization accurately predicts heel bone architecture and trabecular orientation. This method also reveals multiple optimal bone states, suggesting its utility in studying bone remodeling mechanisms.

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Area of Science:

Biomechanics
Computational Biology
Orthopedics

Background:

Bone's internal architecture is optimized for mechanical loading.
Bone remodeling is a continuous process adapting to mechanical stimuli.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the optimality of bone's internal architecture using topological optimization.
To explore the mechanisms of bone remodeling through structural optimization.

Main Methods:

Topological optimization applied to the os-calcis (heel bone) under simulated loading conditions.
Comparison of optimized topology with X-ray and CT images.
Introduction of perturbations during optimization to assess multiple optimal states.
Comparison with in-vivo experimental results.

Main Results:

The optimized bone architecture favorably agreed with the trabecular orientation observed in the os-calcis.
Structural optimization successfully identified multiple optimal topological states for the same mechanical condition.
The findings align with in-vivo experimental observations of bone adaptation.

Conclusions:

Topological optimization is a valid method for predicting bone's internal architecture.
Structural optimization can reveal multiple optimal states for bone under identical mechanical conditions.
This approach offers a potential tool for investigating bone remodeling mechanisms.