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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 9, 2026

Midface Hypoplasia and Cranial Base Morphology in Syndromic Craniosynostosis: A Comparative Analysis Study Using a Predictive Regression Model

Midface Hypoplasia and Cranial Base Morphology in Syndromic Craniosynostosis: A Comparative Analysis Study Using a Predictive Regression Model

Published on: November 4, 2025

Craniosynostosis and maternal smoking.

Suzan L Carmichael¹, Chen Ma, Sonja A Rasmussen

¹March of Dimes Foundation, California Research Division, Oakland, California, USA. scarmichael@marchofdimes.com

Birth Defects Research. Part A, Clinical and Molecular Teratology

|December 1, 2007

Summary

Heavy smoking after the first trimester of pregnancy may increase craniosynostosis risk in infants. Secondhand smoke exposure at home also showed a modest association with increased risk.

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Published on: March 25, 2016

Area of Science:

Obstetrics and Gynecology
Pediatric Surgery
Environmental Health

Background:

Previous studies indicate a potential link between maternal smoking and craniosynostosis risk.
Craniosynostosis is a condition where skull bones fuse prematurely.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the association between maternal smoking and craniosynostosis.
To examine the impact of smoking timing, intensity, and secondhand smoke exposure on craniosynostosis risk.

Main Methods:

Population-based case-control study using data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (1997-2003).
Included 531 craniosynostosis cases and 5008 non-malformed controls.
Data collected via maternal telephone interviews, adjusting for multiple confounding factors.

Main Results:

Smoking during the first month of pregnancy was not associated with craniosynostosis.
Smoking at least one pack/day after the first trimester showed a moderately increased risk (e.g., second trimester OR 1.6 for ≥15 cigarettes/day).
Secondhand smoke exposure at home, but not at work, was associated with a modest increased risk (OR 1.3).

Conclusions:

Heavy maternal smoking after the first trimester is associated with a moderately increased risk of craniosynostosis.
Findings suggest a dose-dependent and timing-dependent effect of smoking.
Results for secondhand smoke warrant further investigation, though confidence intervals were wide.