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Related Concept Videos

Cardiac Output and Stroke Volume01:11

Cardiac Output and Stroke Volume

Cardiac output (CO) is an integral aspect of human physiology, reflecting the heart's efficiency and responsiveness to the body's needs. It represents the volume of blood that the left or right ventricle ejects into the aorta or pulmonary trunk each minute. The CO is calculated by multiplying the heart rate (HR)—the number of heartbeats per minute—by the stroke volume (SV)—the amount of blood pumped out with each heartbeat.
In an average resting adult male, the typical cardiac output averages...
Cardiac Output I:Effect of Heart Rate on Cardiac Output01:19

Cardiac Output I:Effect of Heart Rate on Cardiac Output

Cardiac Output
Cardiac output (CO) refers to the total amount of blood ejected by one of the ventricles in liters per minute (L/min). In a resting adult, CO ranges from 5 to 6 L/min, adjusting according to the body's metabolic requirements.
Effect of Heart Rate on Cardiac Output
Cardiac output adapts to metabolic demands during stress, physical activity, or illness. The autonomic nervous system regulates heart rate via the sinoatrial node. The parasympathetic nervous system decreases heart rate...
Cardiac Output II: Effect of Stroke Volume on Cardiac Output01:22

Cardiac Output II: Effect of Stroke Volume on Cardiac Output

Cardiac output (CO), the amount of blood the heart pumps per minute, is a parameter in cardiovascular physiology determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume, the amount of blood pushed from one of the ventricles per heartbeat, is influenced by preload, afterload, and contractility.
Preload
Preload refers to the initial elongation of the cardiac myocytes before contraction and is related to the volume of blood filling the heart at the end of diastole, or end-diastolic volume. The...
Pulse01:05

Pulse

The pulse is one of the most fundamental physiological indicators of the body's cardiovascular health. It is the rhythmic expansion and contraction of the arterial walls in response to the pressure generated by the heart's pumping action.
Pulse Rate and its Significance
Pulse rate, often measured in beats per minute (bpm), reflects the heart rate (HR), which is influenced by numerous factors such as stress, physical activity, and hormonal changes. A normal resting adult pulse rate falls between...
Exercise and Cardiac Output01:17

Exercise and Cardiac Output

Regular physical activity is essential for maintaining cardiovascular health, with aerobic exercises being particularly effective. According to the American Heart Association, 150 minutes of moderate to intense aerobic exercise per week is recommended for a healthy heart. Aerobic activities may include brisk walking, running, bicycling, cross-country skiing, and swimming, ideally performed three to five times per week.
Sustained exercise increases the muscles' oxygen demand, which can be met...
Imbalances in Cardiac Output01:26

Imbalances in Cardiac Output

The heart's primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, maintaining a balance between blood sent out (cardiac output) and blood returning (venous return). If this balance is disrupted, it can result in congestive heart failure (CHF), a severe condition where the heart becomes an inefficient pump, leading to inadequate blood circulation.
CHF can occur due to the failure of either side of the heart. Left-side failure leads to pulmonary congestion—the right side continues to send blood...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 9, 2026

Determination of Cardiac Output in a Porcine Model for Ex Vivo Pulmonary Perfusion
06:10

Determination of Cardiac Output in a Porcine Model for Ex Vivo Pulmonary Perfusion

Published on: June 28, 2024

[Noninvasive cardiac output determinations].

V V Subbotin, A V Sitnikov, S A Il'in

    Anesteziologiia I Reanimatologiia
    |December 7, 2007
    PubMed
    Summary

    This study compared noninvasive cardiac output (CO) methods against the gold standard. Current mini- or noninvasive techniques do not accurately replace traditional thermodilution for measuring CO.

    Area of Science:

    • Cardiovascular Physiology
    • Medical Device Technology

    Background:

    • Pulmonary arterial catheterization for cardiac output (CO) determination is the gold standard but carries complication risks.
    • Development of mini- or noninvasive CO measurement devices is driven by the need to avoid catheter-related complications.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To prospectively compare the accuracy of various mini- or noninvasive CO determination techniques against a reference method.
    • To evaluate the reliability of arterial curve (ART) analysis, transesophageal Doppler ultrasonic sensor (TEDUS), Fick's backward equation, and thoracic bioimpedance (Tbio) for CO measurement.

    Main Methods:

    • Prospective controlled study comparing ART, TEDUS, Fick's backward equation, and Tbio against bolus thermodilution (CO BT) as the reference.
    • CO values and differences from the reference method were statistically analyzed, including mean difference, standard deviation, and error percentages with confidence intervals.

    Related Experiment Videos

    Last Updated: Jul 9, 2026

    Determination of Cardiac Output in a Porcine Model for Ex Vivo Pulmonary Perfusion
    06:10

    Determination of Cardiac Output in a Porcine Model for Ex Vivo Pulmonary Perfusion

    Published on: June 28, 2024

    Main Results:

    • All evaluated mini- or noninvasive methods yielded lower mean CO values compared to the reference thermodilution method.
    • Significant scatter was observed in CO values calculated by alternative methods, indicating variability.
    • Method errors compared to CO BT were: ART 27%, TEDUS 19%, Fick 20%, and Tbio 25%.

    Conclusions:

    • None of the assessed mini- or noninvasive cardiac output determination methods demonstrated sufficient accuracy to completely replace the classical thermodilution technique.
    • Further research and technological advancements are needed to develop reliable noninvasive alternatives for CO monitoring.