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Parenteral Anesthetics: Overview

Parenteral Anesthetics: Overview

Intravenous anesthetics are drugs administered parenterally to induce anesthesia or sedation. Propofol is a widely used agent formulated as a 1% emulsion in soybean oil, glycerol, and egg phosphatide. It induces rapid anesthesia primarily due to its rapid distribution from the bloodstream to target tissues and is metabolized in the liver. However, it can cause significant pain on injection and hypertriglyceridemia. Fospropofol, a water-based prodrug of propofol, lacks these adverse effects.

Inhalational Anesthetics: Overview

Inhalational Anesthetics: Overview

Inhalation anesthetics are drugs that induce general anesthesia upon inhalation. They work by increasing the sensitivity of GABAA receptors or inhibiting NMDA receptors, leading to a decrease in central nervous system activity. The depth of anesthesia can be rapidly adjusted by changing the concentration of the inhaled gas. Some common examples of inhalational anesthetics include volatile liquids like isoflurane, desflurane, sevoflurane and gases like xenon and nitrous oxide. Isoflurane, a...

Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Barbiturates

Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Barbiturates

Sedatives and hypnotics encompass a drug class that acts on the central nervous system (CNS) to alleviate anxiety, promote relaxation and induce sleep.These drugs function by amplifying the actions of the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), resulting in reduced neuronal activity. Barbiturates, a subset of sedatives and hypnotics first synthesized in the late 1800s, are categorized into ultra-short, short, intermediate, and long-acting groups based on their duration of effect. A key...

Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Miscellaneous Agents

Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Miscellaneous Agents

Sedatives and hypnotics encompass a wide range of substances, each with its unique mechanism of action, uses, and potential adverse effects.
Melatonin congeners like ramelteon (Rozerem) and tasimelteon (Hetlioz) selectively bind to melatonin receptors (MT1 and MT2) and thus mimic the actions of melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles. Tasimelteon is primarily used for non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder, common in blind patients. They are also used to treat conditions like insomnia...

CNS Depressants: Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines

CNS Depressants: Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines

CNS depressants include drugs from the category of barbiturates and benzodiazepines. They are valuable medications for managing anxiety disorders and insomnia. Barbiturates, once used to induce and maintain sleep, have been replaced mainly by benzodiazepines due to barbiturate's toxicity, tolerance, and overdose risks. They interact with GABAA receptors, leading to sedation at low doses and potentially coma and death at higher doses. Phenobarbital, a long-acting barbiturate, possesses...

Sedatives and Hypnotics: Overview

Sedatives and Hypnotics: Overview

Sedatives are drugs that alleviate anxiety, while hypnotics induce sleep. Both classes of medication suppress neuronal activity, leading to a calming effect for sedatives and facilitating sleep for hypnotics.
Sedative-hypnotics are categorized into barbiturates, benzodiazepines (BZDs), and non-benzodiazepines or Z-drugs. These drugs work by suppressing central nervous system activity, and this suppression is dose-dependent. Older sedative medications, like barbiturates, follow a linear curve in...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 9, 2026

Application of Dixon's Up-and-Down Design to Estimate the Minimum Alveolar Concentration of Sevoflurane in Rats with Refined Movement Classification

Application of Dixon's Up-and-Down Design to Estimate the Minimum Alveolar Concentration of Sevoflurane in Rats with Refined Movement Classification

Published on: July 25, 2025

[Fentanyl hypnotic interaction with emulsified isoflurane].

Jing-wen Yang¹, Ming-liang Yi, Yun-fei Chai

¹Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.

Sichuan Da Xue Xue Bao. Yi Xue Ban = Journal of Sichuan University. Medical Science Edition

|December 22, 2007

Summary

Fentanyl significantly enhances the hypnotic effects of emulsified isoflurane in rats. Combining these agents results in a synergistic effect, reducing the required dose of isoflurane for hypnosis.

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Guidelines for Elective Pediatric Fiberoptic Intubation

Guidelines for Elective Pediatric Fiberoptic Intubation

Published on: January 17, 2011

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Last Updated: Jul 9, 2026

Application of Dixon's Up-and-Down Design to Estimate the Minimum Alveolar Concentration of Sevoflurane in Rats with Refined Movement Classification

Application of Dixon's Up-and-Down Design to Estimate the Minimum Alveolar Concentration of Sevoflurane in Rats with Refined Movement Classification

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Guidelines for Elective Pediatric Fiberoptic Intubation

Guidelines for Elective Pediatric Fiberoptic Intubation

Published on: January 17, 2011

Area of Science:

Anesthesiology and Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics and Drug Interactions

Context:

Investigating the combined effects of anesthetic agents is crucial for optimizing drug regimens.
Fentanyl and isoflurane are commonly used anesthetics, but their interaction in emulsified form requires further elucidation.

Purpose:

To determine the effect of fentanyl on the 50% effective dose (ED50) of emulsified isoflurane for hypnosis in rats.
To characterize the interaction between fentanyl and emulsified isoflurane during hypnotic induction.

Summary:

The 50% effective dose (ED50) of emulsified isoflurane for hypnosis was determined in Sprague-Dawley rats with and without varying doses of fentanyl.
Isobolgraphic and algebraic analyses revealed a synergistic interaction between fentanyl and emulsified isoflurane, with fentanyl progressively reducing the ED50 of isoflurane in a non-linear manner.

Impact:

This study demonstrates that fentanyl potentiates the hypnotic effect of emulsified isoflurane.
The findings suggest that combining fentanyl with emulsified isoflurane can lead to enhanced hypnotic effects, potentially allowing for lower anesthetic doses.