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Convergent Evolution

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Evolution shapes the features of organisms over time, ensuring that they are suited for the environments in which they live. Sometimes, selection pressure leads to the rise of similar but unrelated adaptations in organisms with no recent common ancestors, a process known as convergent evolution.The structures that arise from convergent evolution are called analogous structures. They are similar in function even if they are dissimilar in structure. Further, structures can be analogous while also...

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The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes

In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined by the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes. The Y chromosome in Drosophila is active but does not determine sex. It contains genes responsible for the production of sperms in adult flies.
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In 1928, a German botanist Emil Heitz observed the moss nuclei with a DNA binding dye. He observed that while some chromatin regions decondense and spread out in the interphase nucleus, others do not. He termed them euchromatin and heterochromatin, respectively. He proposed that the heterochromatin regions reflect a functionally inactive state of the genome. It was later confirmed that heterochromatin is transcriptionally repressed, and euchromatin is transcriptionally active chromatin.

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During embryogenesis, cells become progressively committed to different fates through a two-step process: specification followed by determination. Specification is demonstrated by removing a segment of an early embryo, “neutrally” culturing the tissue in vitro—for example, in a petri dish with simple medium—and then observing the derivatives. If the cultured region gives rise to cell types that it would normally generate in the embryo, this means that it is specified. In contrast, determination...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 8, 2026

Laboratory Maintenance of the Lower Dipteran Fly Bradysia (Sciara) coprophila: A New/Old Emerging Model Organism

Laboratory Maintenance of the Lower Dipteran Fly Bradysia (Sciara) coprophila: A New/Old Emerging Model Organism

Published on: April 19, 2024

Molecular determinants of bat wing development.

¹Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Pediatrics Department, University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, USA. kesears@alumni.uchicago.edu

Cells, Tissues, Organs

|December 28, 2007

Summary

Bats evolved powered flight through forelimb specialization. Small changes in developmental gene expression drove significant bat wing morphology, including membrane formation and skeletal changes.

Area of Science:

Developmental biology
Evolutionary biology
Comparative morphology

Background:

Bats are unique among mammals for their ability to achieve powered flight.
The evolution of the bat wing represents a significant morphological innovation.

Purpose of the Study:

To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying bat wing development.
To understand how genetic changes contribute to the evolution of flight in bats.

Main Methods:

Comparative genomic analysis
Gene expression studies
Developmental pathway investigation

Main Results:

Identified molecular changes in bat wing membrane formation.

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In situ Protocol for Butterfly Pupal Wings Using Riboprobes

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Last Updated: Jul 8, 2026

Laboratory Maintenance of the Lower Dipteran Fly Bradysia (Sciara) coprophila: A New/Old Emerging Model Organism

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In situ Protocol for Butterfly Pupal Wings Using Riboprobes

In situ Protocol for Butterfly Pupal Wings Using Riboprobes

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Observed skeletal element elongation in bat wings.

Documented the reduction of the bat ulna during development.

Conclusions:

Small alterations in the expression of key developmental genes have resulted in substantial changes in bat wing morphology.
Bats provide a model for understanding how genetic changes drive major evolutionary innovations.