Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 8, 2026

Microbiota of Attine Ants' Gardens: Visualizing a Microbial Landscape by Scanning Electron Microscopy
Published on: October 4, 2024
Breakdown of an ant-plant mutualism follows the loss of large herbivores from an African savanna
Todd M Palmer1, Maureen L Stanton, Truman P Young
1Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA. tmpalmer@zoo.ufl.edu
Abstract:
Mutualisms are key components of biodiversity and ecosystem function, yet the forces maintaining them are poorly understood. We investigated the effects of removing large mammals on an ant-Acacia mutualism in an African savanna. Ten years of large-herbivore exclusion reduced the nectar and housing provided by plants to ants, increasing antagonistic behavior by a mutualistic ant associate and shifting competitive dominance within the plant-ant community from this nectar-dependent mutualist to an antagonistic species that does not depend on plant rewards. Trees occupied by this antagonist suffered increased attack by stem-boring beetles, grew more slowly, and experienced doubled mortality relative to trees occupied by the mutualistic ant. These results show that large mammals maintain cooperation within a widespread symbiosis and suggest complex cascading effects of megafaunal extinction.
Related Concept Videos
Symbiosis
Epiphytes, Parasites, and Carnivores
Predator-Prey Interactions
Defenses Against Pathogens and Herbivores
Threats to Biodiversity
Migration

