Function and malfunction of hematopoietic stem cells in primary bone marrow failure syndromes

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are responsible for the production of mature blood cells in bone marrow; peripheral pancytopenia is a common clinical presentation resulting from several different conditions, including hematological or extra-hematological diseases (mostly cancers) affecting the marrow function, as well as primary failure of hematopoiesis. Primary bone marrow failure syndromes are a heterogeneous group of diseases with specific pathogenic mechanisms, which share a profound impairment of the hematopoietic stem cell pool resulting in global or selective marrow aplasia. Constitutional marrow failure syndromes are conditions caused by intrinsic defects of HSCs; they are due to inherited germline mutations accounting for specific phenotypes, and often involve also organs and systems other than hematopoiesis. By contrast, in acquired marrow failure syndromes hematopoietic stem cells are thought to be intrinsically normal, but subjected to an extrinsic damage affecting their hematopoietic function. Direct toxicity by chemicals or radiation, as well as association with viruses and other infectious agents, can be sometimes demonstrated. In idiopathic Aplastic Anemia (AA) immunological mechanisms play a pivotal role in damaging the hematopoietic compartment, resulting in a depletion of the hematopoietic stem cell pool. Clinical and experimental evidences support the presence of a T cell-mediated immune attack, as confirmed by clonally expanded lymphocytes, even if the target antigens are still undefined. However, this simple model has to be integrated with recent data showing that, even in presence of an extrinsic damage, preexisting mutations or polymorphisms of genes may constitute a genetic propensity to develop marrow failure. Other recent data suggest that similar antigen-driven immune mechanisms may be involved in marrow failure associated with lymphoproliferative or autoimmune disorders characterized by clonal expansion of T lymphocytes, such as Large Granular Lymphocyte leukemia. In this wide spectrum, a unique and intriguing condition is Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria (PNH); even in presence of a somatic mutation of the PIG-A gene carried by one or more HSCs and their progeny, the typical marrow failure in PNH is likely due to pathogenic mechanisms similar to those involved in AA, and not to the intrinsic abnormality conferred to the clonal population by the PIG-A mutation. The study of hematopoietic stem cell function in marrow failure syndromes provides hints for specific molecular pathways disturbed in many diseases of hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic stem cells. Beyond the specific interest of investigators involved in the field of these rare diseases, marrow failure syndromes represent a model that provides intriguing insight into quantity and function of normal hematopoietic stem cells, improving our knowledge on stem cell biology.