Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 7, 2026

Dissection, MicroCT Scanning and Morphometric Analyses of the Baculum
Published on: March 19, 2017
Cross-sectional geometric analysis of a foot bone assemblage from Mangaia, Cook Islands
N L Griffin1, A D Gordon, B G Richmond
1Center for the Advanced Study of Hominid Paleobiology, The George Washington University, 2110 G Street, NW, Washington, DC 20052, USA. nlgriff@gwu.edu
Abstract:
This study describes a human foot bone assemblage from prehistoric Mangaia, Cook Islands in the context of diaphyseal cross-sectional strength measures. We use this sample to test the hypothesis that habitually unshod individuals who walk over rugged terrain will have stronger foot bones than a sample of habitually shod industrialized people. Specifically, we examine whether the Mangaian sample has a stronger size-adjusted metatarsal (MT) and phalangeal cross-sectional properties than the industrial sample, drawn from the Terry Collection. Contrary to expectations, residual analyses showed that most values of cross-sectional area (CA) and torsional resistance (J) of MTs 1-4 and the hallucal proximal phalanx (HPP) of the Mangaians are among those in the lower range of the Terry Collection sample. However, the bending strength ratios (Zy/Zx) of the Mangaian HPP are significantly greater than those of the Terry Collection. While characteristics such as forefoot shape variation between the sexes and among geographic populations cannot be ruled out as influential factors, cross-sectional properties of the hallucal proximal phalanges, but not the MTs, indicate terrain complexity in prehistoric populations.
Related Concept Videos
Bones of the Lower Limb: Tibia and Fibula
Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella
Classification of Bones
Long and Short Bones
The appendicular skeleton, particularly the upper and lower limbs, is primarily made of long and short bones. The long...
Bone Structure
Gross Anatomy of Bone
The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone made of numerous osteons — the functional unit of the compact bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which harbors the bone marrow. In infants and children, this marrow cavity is filled with red marrow, whereas in adults, it...
Bone Markings
Articulating Projections
Articulating projections are found where two bones meet to form a joint. These structures are usually found at the ends of bones. The largest articulation is a rounded projection called the head, supported by a narrow neck at the ends of...

