Cushing syndrome refers to the collection of clinical manifestations that arise when tissues are exposed to excessive amounts of cortisol or cortisol-like medications over an extended period. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, regulates metabolism, immune responses, and the body’s adaptation to stress. When its concentration remains chronically elevated, these physiological pathways become dysregulated, resulting in the characteristic features of the syndrome.Exogenous...

Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are anti-inflammatory drugs used primarily in treating persistent asthma and providing long-term maintenance. They target the bronchial mucosa, the lining of the airways, to control inflammation, a critical factor in asthma progression and exacerbation.
ICS work through a multifaceted mechanism of action. They suppress the inflammatory response caused by the proliferation of TH cells. They also reduce the transcription of the IL-2 gene, which is involved in the...

Glucocorticoids, a class of anti-inflammatory drugs, are pivotal in treating moderate to severe Crohn's disease by inducing remission. They exhibit their anti-inflammatory action by inhibiting the production of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1, and chemokines like IL-8. In addition, they reduce the expression of inflammatory cell adhesion molecules and inhibit gene transcription of nitric oxide synthase, phospholipase A2, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2),...

DefinitionTraumatic brain injury, or TBI, is a disturbance of normal brain function induced by an external mechanical force, such as a direct blow to the head or a penetrating injury. It can affect both brain structure and function, producing a wide range of clinical outcomes. TBI is a heterogeneous condition, meaning its effects may differ based on the type, location, and severity of the injury.Basis of ClassificationTBI is classified based on severity, injury mechanism, or pathophysiology. In...

Cortisol production is normally governed by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which maintains hormonal balance through tightly regulated feedback mechanisms. Disruption of this regulatory system is central to the development of Cushing syndrome, whether the excess cortisol originates from external medications or internal pathology. Persistent cortisol elevation alters metabolism, immune function, and endocrine signaling, producing the characteristic clinical features of the...

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) refers to a potentially life-threatening rise in pressure inside the skull. This usually happens when there is a major change in the volume of brain tissue, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) — the three components inside the skull. According to the Monro-Kellie doctrine, if the volume of one component increases, the volumes of the other components must decrease to maintain normal pressure. If this does not happen, ICP rises.The process often begins with...