Epigenetic processes implemented during spermatogenesis distinguish the paternal pronucleus in the embryo

Though spermatozoon and egg contribute an equal share of nuclear DNA content to the newly formed embryo, there are inherent epigenetic differences between the paternal and maternal pronuclei in early cleavage stage embryos. Information about how to decipher sperm DNA in the embryo is established via sperm-specific DNA packaging that occurs during spermatogenesis. In addition to protamines, paternal factors that package sperm DNA distinctly from oocyte or somatic DNA include histones and their modifications, histone variants, chromatin-binding proteins, and non-coding RNAs. These evolutionarily conserved factors play interconnected roles in heterochromatin formation, gene regulation, and maintenance of genome integrity, which influence key processes after fertilization. This review focuses on recent developments from genomic and proteomic studies in model organisms showing that components closely associated with sperm DNA contribute to embryonic survival. These advances may reveal important insights into the treatment of infertility and use of assisted reproductive technologies.