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Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

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Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

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Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

Goiter

Goiter

Goiter refers to an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that may appear as a diffuse goiter (uniform enlargement) or nodular (single or multiple nodules). Functionally, it is classified as nontoxic (normal/low hormone levels) or toxic (excess hormone production).PathophysiologyDiffuse thyroid enlargement typically results from prolonged stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or TSH-like agents, commonly seen in hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency. In contrast, in hyperthyroid...

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Updated: Jul 7, 2026

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Published on: March 17, 2023

Interferon-induced hypothyroidism causing reversible pituitary enlargement.

Giacomo G Vecil¹, Nicholas V Papadopoulos, Rena Vassilopoulou-Sellin

¹The Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030-4009, USA.

Endocrine Practice : Official Journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists

|March 1, 2008

Summary

Interferon therapy can cause hypothyroidism and pituitary hyperplasia in cancer patients. Early screening for hypothyroidism is recommended during interferon treatment to prevent misdiagnosis.

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Last Updated: Jul 7, 2026

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

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Published on: March 17, 2023

Preparation of Mouse Pituitary Immunogen for the Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis

Preparation of Mouse Pituitary Immunogen for the Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis

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Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis in SJL Mice

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Published on: December 17, 2010

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Oncology

Background:

Malignant melanoma is a serious skin cancer.
Interferon therapy is used for advanced melanoma.
Hormonal imbalances can occur as side effects of cancer treatments.

Observation:

A patient with recurrent melanoma developed hypothyroidism and pituitary hyperplasia after interferon treatment.
Magnetic resonance imaging confirmed pituitary enlargement.
Symptoms included fatigue and menstrual irregularities.

Findings:

Interferon-induced hypothyroidism was diagnosed.
Secondary pituitary hyperplasia was confirmed radiographically.
Thyroid replacement therapy and interferon cessation resolved the endocrinopathy and hyperplasia.

Implications:

Clinicians should consider interferon-induced hypothyroidism in patients with cancer.
Screening for hypothyroidism is crucial for patients on interferon.
This case highlights the importance of recognizing drug-induced endocrine disorders to avoid misdiagnosis of pituitary adenoma or metastatic disease.