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Related Concept Videos

The Spinal Cord01:54

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is the body’s major nerve tract of the central nervous system, communicating afferent sensory information from the periphery to the brain and efferent motor information from the brain to the body. The human spinal cord extends from the hole at the base of the skull, or foramen magnum, to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra.
Bone Markings01:26

Bone Markings

Bones have various surface features that help form joints and attach to other soft tissues. Depending on the function, bone markings are categorized into articulating projections, processes for attachment, depressions, and openings.
Articulating Projections
Articulating projections are found where two bones meet to form a joint. These structures are usually found at the ends of bones. The largest articulation is a rounded projection called the head, supported by a narrow neck at the ends of...
Spinal Nerves: Anatomy01:23

Spinal Nerves: Anatomy

Spinal nerves are pivotal conduits in the nervous system, bridging the central nervous system (CNS) with the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These nerves enable a complex communication network between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body, facilitating sensory input, motor output, and autonomic functions.
There are 31 bilateral pairs of spinal nerves, each emerging from the spinal cord through the intervertebral foramina—openings between adjacent vertebrae. These nerves are...
Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature01:16

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and  allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form the...
Local Anesthetics: Clinical Application as Spinal Anesthesia01:11

Local Anesthetics: Clinical Application as Spinal Anesthesia

Spinal anesthetics are given during lower abdomen and limb surgeries to block sensory and motor neurons. They are administered in the mid to low lumbar regions, primarily acting on the cauda equina's nerve roots. The blockade level depends on the local anesthetic (LA) concentration. Usually, low LA concentrations are sufficient to block sensory fibers, while only high LA concentrations block motor fibers. Other factors like injection volume and speed, the patient's posture, and the drug...
Spinal Cord: Gross Anatomy01:15

Spinal Cord: Gross Anatomy

The spinal cord resides within the protective confines of the vertebral column. It is the main pathway for information traveling between the brain and the body. It plays a fundamental role in nearly all bodily functions, from simple reflexes to complex motor movements. The spinal cord begins at the medulla oblongata at the base of the brainstem and extends downward, terminating at the conus medullaris near the first and second lumbar vertebrae. The spinal cord's length in adults is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 7, 2026

Measurement of Dynamic Scapular Kinematics Using an Acromion Marker Cluster to Minimize Skin Movement Artifact
10:07

Measurement of Dynamic Scapular Kinematics Using an Acromion Marker Cluster to Minimize Skin Movement Artifact

Published on: February 10, 2015

Relationships between spinal landmarks and skin surface markers.

Jack R Engsberg1, Lawrence G Lenke, Keith H Bridwell

  • 1Program in Occupational Therapy, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.

Journal of Applied Biomechanics
|March 1, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Surface markers accurately measure spinal alignment, correlating highly with radiographic measurements of coronal vertical alignment (CVA) and sagittal vertical alignment (SVA). This validates surface markers as a reliable tool for spinal assessment.

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Measurement of Dynamic Scapular Kinematics Using an Acromion Marker Cluster to Minimize Skin Movement Artifact
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Three-Dimensional Cephalometric Landmark Annotation Demonstration on Human Cone Beam Computed Tomography Scans
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Published on: September 8, 2023

Area of Science:

  • Orthopedics
  • Radiology
  • Biomechanical Engineering

Background:

  • Accurate assessment of spinal alignment is crucial for diagnosing and managing various musculoskeletal conditions.
  • Radiographic measurements, such as coronal vertical alignment (CVA) and sagittal vertical alignment (SVA), are standard but involve radiation exposure.
  • Surface marker-based methods offer a non-invasive alternative, but their correlation with radiographic measures needs thorough investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To determine the relationship between spinal alignment variables derived from biplanar radiographs and those obtained from skin-based surface markers.
  • To assess the reliability of surface markers in capturing coronal vertical alignment (CVA) and sagittal vertical alignment (SVA).

Main Methods:

  • Biplanar radiographs were acquired from 28 standing subjects.
  • Metallic surface markers were placed on the skin overlying C7 and S2.
  • Coronal vertical alignment (CVA) and sagittal vertical alignment (SVA) were calculated from both radiographic images (CVA-R, SVA-R) and surface marker data (CVA-P-R, SVA-P-R).

Main Results:

  • A strong positive correlation was observed between radiographic CVA and surface marker CVA (CVA-R vs. CVA-P-R: r=0.894, p<0.000).
  • An even stronger positive correlation was found between radiographic SVA and surface marker SVA (SVA-R vs. SVA-P-R: r=0.946, p<0.000).
  • These high correlations indicate excellent agreement between the two measurement methods.

Conclusions:

  • Surface markers provide a reliable and accurate non-invasive method for assessing spinal coronal and sagittal vertical alignment.
  • Recommendations include collecting concurrent surface marker and radiographic data to further establish relationships and ensuring consistent subject instructions for measurements taken at different times.
  • Caution is advised when interpreting data if simultaneous x-ray and surface marker measurements were not recorded.