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Updated: Jul 7, 2026

A Free-breathing fMRI Method to Study Human Olfactory Function
Published on: July 30, 2017
To inhale or not to inhale: conditioned avoidance in breathing behavior in an odor--20% CO2 paradigm
Stien Fannes1, Ilse Van Diest, Ann Meulders
1Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
Abstract:
This study investigated breathing behavior in an odor-CO2-inhalation fear conditioning paradigm. A differential conditioning paradigm was applied in 55 participants. Both acquisition and extinction consisted of three CS+ and three CS- trials. Diluted ammonia and butyric acid served as conditional odor cues (CSs); inhalation of 20% CO2-enriched as US. The US was presented 10s after CS+ onset and both stimuli co-terminated 30s later. Subjective anxiety and US-expectancy were measured online upon presentation of the CSs. Respiratory behavior showed a biphasic pattern during CS+ acquisition trials. Participants paradoxically lowered their ventilation first; an increased ventilation was observed only towards the end of the trial. Extinction of this breathing inhibition was found. Participants avoiding the CO2 during acquisition did not show a reduction in fear from acquisition to extinction, whereas Non-avoiders did. We conclude that paradoxical decreases in ventilation constitute a relevant behavioral index of fear in CO2-inhalation paradigms.
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