Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 6, 2026

Isolation and Identification of Waterborne Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Molecular Characterization of their Antibiotic Resistance Genes
08:58

Isolation and Identification of Waterborne Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Molecular Characterization of their Antibiotic Resistance Genes

Published on: March 3, 2023

Update on macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone resistance genes

Marilyn C Roberts1

  • 1Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA. marilynr@u.washington.edu

FEMS Microbiology Letters
|April 11, 2008
PubMed

Insights

Bacterial resistance to macrolide, lincosamide, streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone (MLSKO) antibiotics has significantly increased since 1999. New resistance genes, bacterial genera, and mobile genetic elements contribute to the growing challenge of MLSKO antibiotic resistance.

Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • The field of bacterial resistance to macrolide, lincosamide, streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone (MLSKO) antibiotics has undergone significant evolution since 1999.
  • Understanding these changes is crucial for developing effective therapeutic strategies against resistant bacterial infections.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To summarize the key developments in MLSKO antibiotic resistance since the last nomenclature review in 1999.
  • To identify newly discovered resistance genes, bacterial genera, and mechanisms contributing to MLSKO resistance.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review and analysis of published data on bacterial resistance genes.
  • Nomenclature updates and identification of new bacterial genera associated with resistance.
  • Examination of genetic mutations and mobile genetic elements involved in MLSKO resistance.

Main Results:

  • 66 resistance genes identified, including 13 new rRNA methylase genes, 4 efflux transporter genes, and 5 inactivating enzymes.
  • 73 new genera with rRNA methylase genes and 87 new genera with efflux/inactivating genes recognized.
  • Increased prevalence of mutations in 23S rRNA, L4, and L22 ribosomal proteins across nine Gram-positive and 10 Gram-negative genera.
  • Identification of new conjugative transposons carrying MLSKO resistance genes, often co-located with antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes.

Conclusions:

  • The landscape of MLSKO antibiotic resistance has expanded considerably, with novel genes, bacterial hosts, and resistance mechanisms emerging.
  • Mobile genetic elements, such as conjugative transposons, play a critical role in the dissemination of MLSKO resistance genes across diverse bacterial species and environments.
  • Continued surveillance and research are essential to combat the escalating threat of MLSKO-resistant bacteria.

More Related Videos

Antibiotic Dereplication Using the Antibiotic Resistance Platform10:49

Antibiotic Dereplication Using the Antibiotic Resistance Platform

Published on: October 17, 2019

Related Concept Videos

Mechanism of Antibiotic Resistance in MRSA01:25

Mechanism of Antibiotic Resistance in MRSA

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria arises when microorganisms evolve the ability to withstand drugs designed to kill them or inhibit their growth, rendering once-effective treatments useless. This phenomenon, driven by genetic change and selection under antibiotic exposure, poses a profound threat to modern medicine. Mechanisms include drug-inactivating enzymes (e.g., β-lactamases), efflux pumps that eject antibiotics, mutations altering antibiotic targets, decreased drug uptake, and acquisition...
Development of Antibiotic Resistance01:30

Development of Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic resistance is a major public health concern that arises when bacteria evolve mechanisms to withstand the effects of antibiotic treatments. This resistance can be intrinsic, acquired through genetic mutations, or transferred between bacteria via horizontal gene transfer. The development of antibiotic resistance poses significant challenges in treating bacterial infections and necessitates ongoing research to develop new therapeutic strategies.Intrinsic resistance occurs when bacterial...
Clinical Significance of Antibiotic Resistance01:25

Clinical Significance of Antibiotic Resistance

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) presents a critical public health threat, arising from its capacity to resist β-lactam antibiotics due to acquisition of the mecA gene within the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec). This gene encodes penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which impairs binding efficacy of methicillin and other β-lactams. MRSA has evolved into distinct clonal lineages impacting humans and animals alike, reinforcing its significance within the One...
Antibiotic Selection00:57

Antibiotic Selection

Overview
Inhibitors of Bacterial DNA Synthesis01:28

Inhibitors of Bacterial DNA Synthesis

Bacterial pathogens depend on precise and efficient DNA replication to sustain infection. Two type II topoisomerases—DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV—are critical to this process, as they resolve DNA supercoiling and unlink chromosomes during replication. Fluoroquinolones, synthetic derivatives of quinolones, exploit this mechanism by stabilizing the transient DNA–enzyme cleavage complex, preventing strand religation, and causing lethal double-strand breaks. These antibiotics are selectively...
Inhibitors of Bacterial Protein Synthesis01:25

Inhibitors of Bacterial Protein Synthesis

Aminoglycosides constitute a highly potent class of bactericidal antibiotics that exert their antimicrobial effects by targeting the bacterial ribosome, specifically disrupting protein synthesis. These polycationic molecules consist of amino-modified sugars linked via glycosidic bonds to an aminocyclitol core such as 2-deoxystreptamine or streptamine. Their strong positive charges facilitate tight binding to the negatively charged phosphate backbone of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), primarily at the 16S...