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Gastrulation

Gastrulation

Gastrulation establishes the three primary tissues of an embryo: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. This developmental process relies on a series of intricate cellular movements, which in humans transforms a flat, “bilaminar disc” composed of two cell sheets into a three-tiered structure. In the resulting embryo, the endoderm serves as the bottom layer, and stacked directly above it is the intermediate mesoderm, and then the uppermost ectoderm. Respectively, these tissue strata will form...

Cleavage and Blastulation

Cleavage and Blastulation

After a large-single-celled zygote is produced via fertilization, the process of cleavage occurs while zygotes travel through the uterine tube. Cleavage is a mitotic cell division that does not result in growth. With each round of successive cell division, daughter cells get increasingly smaller.

Neurulation

Neurulation

Neurulation is the embryological process which forms the precursors of the central nervous system and occurs after gastrulation has established the three primary cell layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In humans, the majority of this system is formed via primary neurulation, in which the central portion of the ectoderm—originally appearing as a flat sheet of cells—folds upwards and inwards, sealing off to form a hollow neural tube. As development proceeds, the anterior...

Determining the Plane of Cell Division

Determining the Plane of Cell Division

Positioning the cell division plane is a critical step during development and cell differentiation, particularly during mitosis when the plane is essential for determining the size of the two daughter cells. The cell division plane is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation, but different types of organisms have different cell division mechanisms to suit their morphology and function.
Animal cells
In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the plane of cell division starting...

Development of Blood Vessels

Development of Blood Vessels

The development of the vascular system in a fetus is a complex and intricate process that begins as early as 15 to 16 days post-conception. This process starts outside the embryo, specifically in the mesoderm of the yolk sac, chorion, and connecting stalk. Approximately two days later, the formation of blood vessels occurs within the embryo itself.
The initial formation of this system is facilitated by the small amount of yolk present in the ovum and yolk sac. Blood vessels originate from...

Determination

Determination

During embryogenesis, cells become progressively committed to different fates through a two-step process: specification followed by determination. Specification is demonstrated by removing a segment of an early embryo, “neutrally” culturing the tissue in vitro—for example, in a petri dish with simple medium—and then observing the derivatives. If the cultured region gives rise to cell types that it would normally generate in the embryo, this means that it is specified. In contrast, determination...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Three and Four-Dimensional Visualization and Analysis Approaches to Study Vertebrate Axial Elongation and Segmentation

Three and Four-Dimensional Visualization and Analysis Approaches to Study Vertebrate Axial Elongation and Segmentation

Published on: February 28, 2021

Segmental patterning of the vertebrate embryonic axis.

Mary-Lee Dequéant¹, Olivier Pourquié

¹Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street, Kansas City, Missouri 64110, USA.

Nature Reviews. Genetics

|April 17, 2008

Summary

Vertebrate body segmentation involves a segmentation clock and wavefront interacting to form embryonic segments (somites). This review details the mechanisms establishing the periodic pattern of the vertebrate body axis.

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Area of Science:

Developmental biology
Embryogenesis
Comparative anatomy

Background:

Vertebrate body plans exhibit modular organization through segmentation, evident in spinal vertebrae.
Embryonic development establishes this segmental pattern via somites, derived from paraxial mesoderm.
The segmentation clock, a dynamic oscillator, is crucial for rhythmic somite formation.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the current understanding of vertebrate segmentation.
To elucidate the interplay between the segmentation clock and wavefront.
To explain the establishment of the periodic body axis in vertebrates.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on vertebrate embryogenesis and segmentation.
Analysis of molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying somite formation.
Integration of data on the segmentation clock and wavefront dynamics.

Main Results:

The segmentation clock, coupled with a wavefront, orchestrates rhythmic somite production.
This process establishes the periodic, modular structure of the vertebrate body axis.
Understanding these mechanisms is key to comprehending developmental patterns.

Conclusions:

Vertebrate segmentation is a complex, highly regulated process.
The segmentation clock and wavefront are essential components driving somite formation.
Further research can refine our knowledge of developmental patterning.