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Learning Disabilities

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders caused by neurological impairments that affect cognitive functions like language and reading, without indicating overall intellectual or developmental challenges. These disabilities differ from global intellectual or developmental disabilities as they are limited to distinct cognitive functions. Common learning disabilities include dysgraphia, dyslexia, and dyscalculia, each of which impacts unique aspects of learning.
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Language and Cognition

Language and Cognition

Language serves as a bridge between ideas and communication, influencing how individuals perceive and interact with the world. Psychologists have long debated whether language shapes thought or vice versa. This discussion gained grip with Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1940s, who proposed that language determines thought, a concept known as linguistic determinism. They suggested that the vocabulary and structure of a language influence how its speakers think and perceive reality.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

A persistent pattern of angry or irritable mood, defiant behavior, or vindictiveness characterizes Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Symptoms must occur over at least six months, involve interactions with individuals beyond siblings, and meet specific diagnostic criteria to be clinically significant. The disorder affects emotional regulation, social interactions, and behavior, often manifesting early in life and influencing long-term development and functioning.
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Autism Spectrum Disorder

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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

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Higher Mental Functions of the Brain: Language

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Language is a system of communication that allows the expression of thoughts, ideas, and feelings. The brain processes language in both hemispheres.
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Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

Published on: May 1, 2020

Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: under-recognized and under-treated.

Virginia W Berninger¹, Kathleen H Nielsen, Robert D Abbott

¹Educational Psychology, University of Washington. Seattle, WA 98195-3600, USA. vwb@u.washington.edu

Journal of School Psychology

|April 29, 2008

Summary

Dyslexia impacts spelling and writing composition, not just reading. Explicit instruction in phonological, orthographic, and morphological spelling processes is crucial for students with dyslexia.

Keywords:

automatic handwriting dyslexia motor skills spelling writing disability written composition

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Area of Science:

Neurobiology
Developmental Psychology
Educational Psychology

Background:

Dyslexia is defined by neurobiological factors affecting reading and spelling accuracy and speed.
Prior research has emphasized reading difficulties over spelling challenges in dyslexia.
Understanding the writing process in dyslexia is essential for effective intervention.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the relationship between spelling, handwriting, and composition in children with dyslexia and their parents.
To explore the underlying cognitive factors contributing to spelling difficulties in dyslexia.
To inform educational strategies for improving writing skills in students with dyslexia.

Main Methods:

Administered a comprehensive test battery to 122 children with dyslexia and their parents.
Utilized structural equation modeling to analyze the relationships between writing components.
Assessed grapho-motor planning, automatic letter writing/naming, inhibition, and verbal fluency.

Main Results:

A significant path from spelling to composition was identified in individuals with dyslexia and their parents.
Grapho-motor planning did not uniquely predict composition quality, indicating writing is more than a motor skill.
Impaired automatic letter writing/naming, linked to inhibition and verbal fluency deficits, may underlie spelling problems.

Conclusions:

Spelling ability is a key predictor of composition quality in dyslexia.
Writing difficulties in dyslexia stem from complex cognitive processes beyond motor skills.
Explicit instruction in phonological, orthographic, and morphological spelling, alongside composition strategies, is vital for students with dyslexia.