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Related Concept Videos

Hepatic Encephalopathy01:29

Hepatic Encephalopathy

DefinitionHepatic encephalopathy is a reversible neurologic syndrome that results from advanced liver dysfunction or portosystemic shunting. It leads to disturbances in cognition, behavior, and motor function due to the brain’s exposure to gut-derived toxins that the liver fails to detoxify.EtiologyThis condition develops either in the setting of acute fulminant hepatitis or progressively during chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Portosystemic shunting—including...
Encephalitis l: Introduction01:19

Encephalitis l: Introduction

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma, most often due to infections or autoimmune processes. It presents with neuropsychiatric features such as fever, altered mental status, behavioral changes, cognitive dysfunction, seizures, focal deficits, and sometimes autonomic instability. In some cases, the meninges are also involved, resulting in meningoencephalitis.Infectious CausesInfectious encephalitis is most commonly viral but can also result from bacterial, fungal, or parasitic...
Encephalitis ll: Pathophysiology01:26

Encephalitis ll: Pathophysiology

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by direct viral invasion or immune-mediated mechanisms triggered by infections or tumors. Both processes lead to neuronal injury, disrupted neurotransmission, and diverse neurological symptoms, often with overlapping clinical and pathological features.Autoimmune EncephalitisIn autoimmune encephalitis, antibodies target neuronal antigens on cell surfaces, synapses, or within neurons. A key example is anti-NMDAR encephalitis, which can...
Antiepileptic Drugs: GABAergic Pathway Potentiators01:18

Antiepileptic Drugs: GABAergic Pathway Potentiators

γ-aminobutyric acid or GABA, plays a pivotal role as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. GABA pathway potentiators, also known as GABAergic drugs, are a class of pharmaceutical agents designed to enhance the functioning of the GABAergic system. These medications primarily treat epilepsy, a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures.
The key GABA pathway potentiators used in epilepsy management are as follows.
Benzodiazepines are a well-known class of drugs used for their...
Antiepileptic Drugs: Modulators of Neurotransmitter Release Mediated by SV2A Protein01:20

Antiepileptic Drugs: Modulators of Neurotransmitter Release Mediated by SV2A Protein

Antiepileptic drugs, such as levetiracetam (Keppra) and brivaracetam (Briviact), have emerged as crucial tools in managing epilepsy. These medications exert their therapeutic effects by targeting the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A, a transmembrane glycoprotein primarily found in the brain.
SV2A is a transmembrane glycoprotein located predominantly in the brain, modulating the release of neurotransmitters for neuronal communication. Both levetiracetam and brivaracetam exhibit a high affinity for...
Antiepileptic Drugs: Glutamate Antagonists01:14

Antiepileptic Drugs: Glutamate Antagonists

Glutamate is a fundamental neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, playing a vital role in neuronal communication and various cognitive processes. Glutamate stands as the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Its presence is crucial for the communication between neurons, underpinning essential processes such as synaptic transmission, neuronal excitability, and plasticity. These functions are vital for higher-order cognitive processes, including learning and memory. The...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Microdialysis of Excitatory Amino Acids During EEG Recordings in Freely Moving Rats
08:47

Microdialysis of Excitatory Amino Acids During EEG Recordings in Freely Moving Rats

Published on: November 8, 2018

[Hyperammonaemic encephalopathy due to valproic acid].

E Durán-Ferreras1, P L Jiménez-Vilches, J M Galá-Barranco

  • 1Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Universitario de Valme, Sevilla, España. eduardoduranferreras@gmail.com

Revista De Neurologia
|May 1, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Valproic acid (VPA) can cause encephalopathy, a rare side effect. This case highlights the importance of considering VPA-induced encephalopathy in confused patients, even with normal VPA levels.

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Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice
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Published on: May 16, 2019

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Microdialysis of Excitatory Amino Acids During EEG Recordings in Freely Moving Rats
08:47

Microdialysis of Excitatory Amino Acids During EEG Recordings in Freely Moving Rats

Published on: November 8, 2018

Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice
07:01

Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice

Published on: May 16, 2019

Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Toxicology

Background:

  • Valproic acid (VPA) is an anticonvulsant medication.
  • Encephalopathy is a rare, idiosyncratic side effect of VPA treatment.

Observation:

  • An 83-year-old female developed mental slowness, apathy, and confusion after starting VPA for seizures.
  • Initial investigations, including VPA levels and neuroimaging, were normal, except for hyperammonaemia.
  • EEG revealed diffuse encephalopathy with characteristic slow, triphasic waves.

Findings:

  • Discontinuation of VPA led to rapid clinical and EEG improvement, with normalization of ammonium levels.
  • The patient's symptoms resolved within 48 hours of VPA withdrawal.
  • This case suggests VPA-induced encephalopathy can occur even with sub-therapeutic drug levels.

Implications:

  • Clinicians should consider VPA-induced encephalopathy in patients presenting with confusion, especially after recent VPA initiation.
  • Prompt recognition and VPA withdrawal are crucial for favorable outcomes.
  • Further research into the mechanisms of VPA-induced encephalopathy is warranted.