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Influenza

Influenza

Influenza is an acute, highly communicable viral disease that affects the respiratory tract and is responsible for seasonal epidemics worldwide. Influenza A is the most prevalent type associated with widespread outbreaks and is subtyped based on two surface glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), as in H1N1. These glycoproteins are essential for viral infectivity, transmission, and immune recognition. Transmission occurs primarily through respiratory droplets and contaminated...

Inhibitors Of Virion Release

Inhibitors Of Virion Release

Viral replication and dissemination rely on efficient mechanisms for host cell entry, genome replication, assembly, and release. Influenza viruses, such as types A and B, are negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses with a segmented genome, that depend on two critical surface glycoproteins to carry out these processes: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). HA initiates infection by binding to sialic acid residues on the surface of host epithelial cells, facilitating receptor-mediated...

Leaky Scanning

Leaky Scanning

During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA. Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R stands for...

Viral Recombination

Viral Recombination

Cells are sometimes infected by more than one virus at once. When two viruses disassemble to expose their genomes for replication in the same cell, similar regions of their genomes can pair together and exchange sequences in a process called recombination. Alternatively, viruses with segmented genomes can swap segments in a process called reassortment.

Viral Mutations

Viral Mutations

A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material for adaptive...

Arboviral Encephalitis

Arboviral Encephalitis

Arboviral encephalitis refers to brain inflammation caused by arthropod-borne viruses, particularly those transmitted through mosquito vectors. Among these, West Nile virus (WNV), a member of the Flaviviridae family, is a significant public health concern. WNV is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Human infection typically begins when an infected mosquito introduces the virus into the dermis during feeding. The primary transmission cycle involves birds as amplifying hosts...

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Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Nasal Wipes for Influenza A Virus Detection and Isolation from Swine

Nasal Wipes for Influenza A Virus Detection and Isolation from Swine

Published on: December 4, 2015

Avian influenza virus.

Chang-Won Lee¹, Yehia M Saif

¹Department of Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural and Research Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, United States. lee.2854@osu.edu

Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

|May 7, 2008

Summary

Avian influenza viruses rarely infect humans, but human cases of H5N1, H7N7, and H9N2 raise pandemic concerns. Understanding avian influenza virus host restriction is crucial for pandemic preparedness.

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Last Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Nasal Wipes for Influenza A Virus Detection and Isolation from Swine

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Influenza A Virus Studies in a Mouse Model of Infection

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Area of Science:

Virology
Epidemiology
Public Health

Background:

Avian influenza viruses typically do not replicate efficiently in humans, making direct transmission unlikely.
Since 1997, human infections with avian influenza subtypes (H5N1, H7N7, H9N2) have emerged, highlighting pandemic potential.
Current avian-origin influenza viruses in humans show limited human-to-human transmission, but adaptation is a concern.

Purpose of the Study:

To review current knowledge on avian influenza virus (AIV) host restriction.
To understand the biological and genetic factors influencing AIV transmission and adaptation in humans.
To assess the pandemic potential of AIVs and inform preparedness strategies.

Main Methods:

Literature review of scientific articles on avian influenza virus.
Analysis of reported human cases and viral subtypes.
Examination of genetic and biological factors of host restriction.

Main Results:

Avian influenza viruses possess pandemic potential due to sporadic human infections.
Human-adapted avian influenza virus strains with pandemic capabilities may emerge.
Understanding host restriction mechanisms is critical for predicting pandemic risk.

Conclusions:

Continued surveillance and research into avian influenza virus are essential.
Knowledge of host restriction is key to mitigating pandemic threats from avian influenza.
Enhanced understanding can guide public health interventions against potential influenza pandemics.