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Layers of the Epidermis

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The epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, is composed of several distinct layers. From deep to superficial, the layers of the epidermis are as follows:
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The epidermis is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.
The cells in all these layers except the stratum basale are called keratinocytes, a type of cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin. The keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away, being replaced by cells from...

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Papillary Dermis

Dermis
The dermis might be considered the "core" of the integumentary system, as distinct from the epidermis and hypodermis. It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that comprise an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Cultivating a Three-dimensional Reconstructed Human Epidermis at a Large Scale

Cultivating a Three-dimensional Reconstructed Human Epidermis at a Large Scale

Published on: May 28, 2021

The stratum corneum: a double paradox.

Anne Pouillot¹, Nava Dayan, Ada S Polla

¹Alchimie Forever Sàrl, Geneva, Switzerland.

Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology

|May 17, 2008

Summary

The stratum corneum (SC), skin

Area of Science:

Dermatology and Skin Barrier Research
Biochemistry of the Epidermis
Cosmetic Science and Formulation

Background:

The stratum corneum (SC) is the outermost skin layer, crucial for barrier function.
It comprises dead corneocytes and intercellular lipids, presenting a dual nature of dead cells in a live environment.
The SC employs multiple defense mechanisms, including enzymatic activity, microbial flora, immune signaling, and antimicrobial compounds.

Purpose of the Study:

To explore the paradoxical nature of the stratum corneum.
To investigate strategies for enhancing the penetration of active molecules through the SC.
To understand the SC's role in cosmetic and pharmaceutical topical applications.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on SC structure and function.

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Measuring and Modeling Contractile Drying in Human Stratum Corneum

Published on: March 1, 2017

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Last Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Cultivating a Three-dimensional Reconstructed Human Epidermis at a Large Scale

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Improving 2D and 3D Skin In Vitro Models Using Macromolecular Crowding

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Analysis of SC's barrier properties and penetration pathways.

Discussion of physicochemical factors influencing topical ingredient delivery.

Main Results:

The SC exhibits a paradoxical dual nature, serving as a barrier while being a target for penetration.
Various strategies are employed by the SC for protection, including biochemical and immunological defenses.
Penetration pathways and facilitating factors are identified, but precise mechanisms remain unclear.

Conclusions:

The SC is a complex tissue with multifaceted roles in skin protection and therapeutic delivery.
Understanding its properties is vital for developing effective topical treatments and cosmetic products.
Further research is needed to elucidate the exact mechanisms of ingredient penetration for advanced formulation development.