Interactions of methoxyacetic acid with androgen receptor

Endocrine disruptive compounds (EDC) alter hormone-stimulated, nuclear receptor-dependent physiological and developmental processes by a variety of mechanisms. One recently identified mode of endocrine disruption is through hormone sensitization, where the EDC modulates intracellular signaling pathways that control nuclear receptor function, thereby regulating receptor transcriptional activity indirectly. Methoxyacetic acid (MAA), the primary, active metabolite of the industrial solvent ethylene glycol monomethyl ether and a testicular toxicant, belongs to this EDC class. Modulation of nuclear receptor activity by MAA could contribute to the testicular toxicity associated with MAA exposure. In the present study, we evaluated the impact of MAA on the transcriptional activity of several nuclear receptors including the androgen receptor (AR), which plays a pivotal role in the development and maturation of spermatocytes. AR transcriptional activity is shown to be increased by MAA through a tyrosine kinase signaling pathway that involves PI3-kinase. In a combinatorial setting with AR antagonists, MAA potentiated the AR response without significantly altering the EC(50) for androgen responsiveness, partially alleviating the antagonistic effect of the anti-androgens. Finally, MAA treatment of TM3 mouse testicular Leydig cells markedly increased the expression of Cyp17a1 and Shbg while suppressing Igfbp3 expression by ~90%. Deregulation of these genes may alter androgen synthesis and action in a manner that contributes to MAA-induced testicular toxicity.