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Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

Refrigerators or heat pumps are heat engines operating in a reverse direction. For a refrigerator, the focus is on removing heat from a specific area, whereas, for a heat pump, the focus is on dumping heat into one particular area. A refrigerator (or heat pump) absorbs heat Qc from the cold reservoir at Kelvin temperature Tc and discards heat Qh to the hot reservoir at Kelvin temperature Th, while work W is done on the engine’s working substance.
A household refrigerator removes heat from the...

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

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Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, and solubilities (miscibilities) of substances. Molar mass, molecular shape, and polarity affect the strength of different intermolecular forces, which influence the magnitude of physical properties across a family of molecules.
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Noble Gases

Noble Gases

The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name “noble” because they were assumed to be nonreactive since they have filled valence shells. In 1962, Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia proved this assumption to be false.

Alkyl Halides

Alkyl Halides

Structural Properties
Alkyl halides are halogen-substituted alkanes wherein one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The carbon atom in an alkyl halide is bonded to the halogen atom, which is sp3-hybridized and exhibits a tetrahedral shape.
Unlike alkyl halides, compounds in which a halogen atom is bonded to an sp2 -hybridized carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) are called vinyl halides. Whereas aryl...

Halogens

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Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. Astatine is a highly unstable radioactive element, so currently, most of its properties are unknown due to its short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element also predicted to be in this group.

Radical Halogenation: Thermodynamics

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The thermodynamic favorability of a reaction is determined by the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG). ΔG has two components- enthalpy (ΔH) and entropy (ΔS). The entropy component is negligible for alkane halogenation because the number of reactants and product molecules are equal. In this case, the ΔG is governed only by the enthalpy component. The most crucial factor that determines ΔH is the strength of the bonds. ΔH can be determined by comparing the energy between bonds broken and bonds...

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Updated: Jul 5, 2026

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

Published on: March 13, 2017

Ranking of refrigerants.

Guillermo Restrepo¹, Monika Weckert, Rainer Brüggemann

¹Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany.

Environmental Science & Technology

|May 24, 2008

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

This study ranks 40 refrigerants by environmental impact, using ozone depletion, global warming potential, and atmospheric lifetime. Hydrocarbons and ammonia are the safest, while some hydrofluoroethers pose risks similar to hydrofluorocarbons.

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Area of Science:

Environmental Science
Chemical Engineering
Materials Science

Background:

Refrigerant environmental impact assessment is crucial for sustainable technology.
Numerous refrigerants, including historical, current, and novel substitutes, require comparative environmental evaluation.
Key environmental metrics include ozone depletion potential (ODP), global warming potential (GWP), and atmospheric lifetime.

Purpose of the Study:

To conduct a comprehensive environmental hazard ranking of 40 refrigerants.
To compare the environmental profiles of various refrigerant classes.
To identify refrigerants with lower environmental risks.

Main Methods:

Application of the Hasse diagram technique for ordering chemical substances based on multiple criteria.
Categorization of refrigerants into 13 distinct classes.
Utilizing the dominance degree method to analyze order relationships among refrigerant classes.

Main Results:

The Hasse diagram technique successfully ranked 40 refrigerants based on ODP, GWP, and atmospheric lifetime.
Refrigerants were grouped into 13 classes, with Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), Hydrofluoroethers (HFEs), and hydrocarbons being the most populated.
Some hydrofluoroethers (HFEs) were identified as environmentally problematic, comparable to hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

Conclusions:

Hydrocarbons and ammonia demonstrate the lowest environmental impact among the assessed refrigerants.
Certain hydrofluoroethers (HFEs) present significant environmental concerns, necessitating careful consideration in refrigerant selection.
The Hasse diagram technique provides a robust mathematical framework for refrigerant environmental assessment and comparative analysis.