Role of embryonic factors in implantation: recent developments

The embryonic factors influencing implantation have been studied extensively in laboratory and domestic animals, but not in primates, including humans. Species differences make extrapolation inadvisable. Embryonic factors affecting implantation include intrinsic features of the embryo, such as its genetic constitution, morphology and hatching. Abnormal genetic constitutions or unsuccessful transitions from maternal to embryonic transcription could account for many failures of early embryonic growth and implantation. Morphology per se does not greatly influence implantation, except when it reflects an abnormal genetic constitution, e.g. in severe fragmentation, although subtle effects may be detected as experimental techniques are refined. The initiation of differentiation and intraembryonic communication between cells and cell types has been studied in animal embryos. Signals must be exchanged between the embryo and the mother to ensure satisfactory implantation. These could include platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, histamine related factors, steroids, proteins, metabolic products and immune-active factors. No one factor seems to be totally responsible for alerting the mother to the presence of an embryo, and a concerted action of these and other agents is probably responsible. The process of implantation itself is poorly understood because of a lack of adequate experimental models. The expression of complementary proteins and the role of specific enzymes and markers of endometrial and embryonic competence are factors well worthy of further study. Knowledge about human implantation is increasing because of recent developments in assisted reproductive technology, and concepts arising from many years of research in animals should find clinical applications in understanding and controlling human reproduction.