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An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum. The force accounts for the wave's radiation pressure exerted on the object. Maxwell's prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The measuring instrument had mirrors suspended from a fiber kept inside a glass container. Nichols...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 4, 2026

A 100 KW Class Applied-field Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster

A 100 KW Class Applied-field Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster

Published on: December 22, 2018

An asymmetric solar wind termination shock.

Edward C Stone¹, Alan C Cummings, Frank B McDonald

¹California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA. ecs@srl.caltech.edu

|July 4, 2008

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Voyager 2 detected higher energetic proton intensity at the solar wind termination shock than Voyager 1. This suggests differences in the shock

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Area of Science:

Heliophysics
Astrophysics
Plasma Physics

Background:

Voyager 2 crossed the solar wind termination shock at 83.7 au, 10 au closer than Voyager 1.
This proximity difference suggests an asymmetric heliosphere.
Potential causes include interstellar magnetic field pressure, shock motion, or solar wind pressure.

Purpose of the Study:

Investigate the asymmetry of the solar wind termination shock.
Compare energetic particle intensities at the shock crossings by Voyager 1 and 2.
Determine the source of anomalous cosmic rays and Galactic cosmic ray gradients.

Main Methods:

In-situ measurements by Voyager 2 at the termination shock.
Comparison of 4-5 MeV proton intensities with Voyager 1 data.
Analysis of Galactic cosmic ray helium intensity gradients.

Main Results:

Voyager 2 observed three times higher 4-5 MeV proton intensity than Voyager 1.
Anomalous cosmic ray source was not found at the shock by Voyager 2.
A small intensity gradient for Galactic cosmic ray helium was detected.

Conclusions:

The termination shock is asymmetric, evidenced by differing proton intensities.
The source of anomalous cosmic rays is likely not at the shock crossing location.
Galactic cosmic ray gradients may extend further into the heliosheath or be lower than expected.