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Muscles of the Shoulder01:23

Muscles of the Shoulder

The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
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Ribozymes02:47

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The term ribozyme is used for RNA that can act as an enzyme. Ribozymes are mainly found in selected viruses, bacteria, plant organelles, and lower eukaryotes. Ribozymes were first discovered in 1982 when Tom Cech’s laboratory observed Group I introns acting as enzymes. This was shortly followed by the discovery of another ribozyme, Ribonulcease P, by Sid Altman’s laboratory. Both Cech and Altman received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1989 for their work on ribozymes.
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A Phenotyping Regimen for Genetically Modified Mice Used to Study Genes Implicated in Human Diseases of Aging
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Rhomboid proteases and their biological functions.

Matthew Freeman1

  • 1MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK. MF1@mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk

Annual Review of Genetics
|July 9, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Rhomboids, a unique class of membrane-embedded proteases, regulate vital cellular processes. Recent research reveals their roles in signaling, mitochondrial function, and pathogen invasion.

Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Molecular Biology
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Rhomboids are intramembrane serine proteases distinct from soluble counterparts.
  • Their active sites are located within the cell membrane, cleaving transmembrane domains.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review recent biochemical and structural findings on rhomboid proteolysis in hydrophobic environments.
  • To focus on the emerging biological functions of rhomboids.

Main Methods:

  • Biochemical assays to study protease activity.
  • Structural biology techniques to determine rhomboid structure.
  • Genetic and cell-based assays to investigate biological functions.

Main Results:

  • Elucidation of mechanisms for proteolysis within a hydrophobic membrane environment.

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  • Implication of rhomboids in diverse cellular functions including growth factor signaling and mitochondrial activity.
  • Evidence for rhomboid involvement in host cell invasion by apicomplexan parasites and bacterial protein translocation.

    • Conclusions:

    • Rhomboids utilize cellular membrane trafficking machinery for novel proteolysis regulation.
    • Despite recent discovery, rhomboids play critical roles in fundamental biological processes.
    • Further research is needed to fully understand the functions of all rhomboid family members.