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Related Concept Videos

Spinal Cord: Cross-sectional Anatomy01:16

Spinal Cord: Cross-sectional Anatomy

The cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord offers a detailed view of its complex structure and function within the central nervous system. At the core of the spinal cord lies the gray matter, characterized by its butterfly or "H"-shaped appearance in cross-section. This central region is enveloped by white matter, with the overall structure divided into symmetrical halves by the dorsal median sulcus and the ventral median fissure.
Gray Matter and its Components
Central to the gray matter is...
General Structure of a Vertebra01:30

General Structure of a Vertebra

A typical vertebra, with the exception of the sacrum and coccyx, consists of a body, a vertebral arch, and seven different projections termed processes. The anterior portion of the vertebrae, the body, supports about half the body’s weight. The vertebral bodies progressively increase in size and thickness from the cervical region to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The intervertebral discs present between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae firmly unites them, forming a continuous column.
Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature01:16

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and  allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form the...
Gross Anatomy of Bone01:17

Gross Anatomy of Bone

The two main features of a long bone are the diaphysis and the epiphysis.
The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone made of numerous osteons — the functional unit of the compact bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which harbors the bone marrow. In infants and children, this marrow cavity is filled with red marrow, whereas in adults, it...
Muscles of the Vertebral Column01:27

Muscles of the Vertebral Column

The back muscles that lie deep into the thoracolumbar fascia are called intrinsic or true back muscles. These muscles are divided into four layers: superficial, intermediate, deep, and deepest layers.
Superficial Layer:
The superficial layer consists primarily of the splenius muscles, which include the splenius capitis and splenius cervicis. These muscles are mainly responsible for the head and cervical spine movements, including extension, rotation, and lateral bending. The splenius capitis...
Articulations of the Vertebral Column01:28

Articulations of the Vertebral Column

In addition to being held together by the intervertebral discs, adjacent vertebrae also articulate with each other at synovial joints formed between the superior and inferior articular processes called zygapophysial joints (facet joints). These are plane joints that provide for only limited motions between the vertebrae. The orientation of the articular processes at these joints varies in different regions of the vertebral column and serves to determine the types of motions available in each...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 3, 2026

Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology
07:26

Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology

Published on: August 22, 2022

Comparative study of Moroto vertebral specimens.

Masato Nakatsukasa1

  • 1Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan. nakatsuk@anthro.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp

Journal of Human Evolution
|August 2, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Morotopithecus bishopi possessed a more stable lumbar spine than other African Miocene hominoids, indicated by short vertebral bodies and absent ventral keels. This suggests early evolution of hominoid body plans.

Area of Science:

  • Paleoanthropology
  • Vertebrate Paleontology
  • Primate Evolution

Background:

  • The hypodigm of Morotopithecus bishopi includes vertebral, scapular, femoral, and craniodental specimens from Moroto II.
  • Previous interpretations suggest derived morphological traits in M. bishopi indicate early hominoid body plan evolution by 20 million years ago (Ma).
  • Detailed description of less-preserved vertebral specimens, particularly UMP 68.06, was lacking.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide the first detailed description of previously undescribed vertebral specimens of Morotopithecus bishopi.
  • To analyze the lumbar vertebral morphology of M. bishopi, focusing on UMP 68.06.
  • To compare the lumbar vertebral column of M. bishopi with other African Miocene hominoids and extant great apes.

Main Methods:

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Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates
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Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates

Published on: September 17, 2019

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Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology
07:26

Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology

Published on: August 22, 2022

Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates
10:35

Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates

Published on: September 17, 2019

  • Detailed morphological description and analysis of lumbar vertebral specimens, including UMP 68.06 and UMP 67.28.
  • Comparative analysis of vertebral morphology with fossil taxa like Proconsul nyanzae/heseloni and Nacholapithecus kerioi.
  • Comparison of inferred vertebral characteristics with extant great ape lumbar vertebral morphology.

Main Results:

  • Confirmed that M. bishopi had a more dorsostable lumbar column than P. nyanzae/heseloni or N. kerioi.
  • Lumbar vertebral bodies are craniocaudally short, and the median ventral keel is absent.
  • Ventral wedging of UMP 68.06 suggests M. bishopi may have had more lumbar vertebrae than extant great apes; variability in transverse process origin noted.

Conclusions:

  • Morotopithecus bishopi exhibits a distinct lumbar vertebral morphology, characterized by a dorsostable column.
  • The findings support the interpretation of an early appearance of certain modern hominoid postcranial traits.
  • Variability in transverse process origin warrants caution in taxonomic and functional interpretations based solely on this feature.