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Paramagnetism

Paramagnetism

Paramagnets are materials with unpaired electrons that possess a finite magnetic moment. In the absence of a magnetic field, these moments are randomly oriented, and thus the net moment is zero. Under an external field, a torque acting on the moments tends to align them along the field's direction. However, the random thermal motion of electrons produces a torque opposite to the external field and tries to disorient the moments. These two competing effects align only a few moments along the...

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism

Materials consisting of paired electrons have zero net magnetic moments. However, when these materials are placed under an external magnetic field, the moments opposite to the field are induced. Such materials are called diamagnets. Diamagnetism is the response of the diamagnets when placed in an external magnetic field.
Diamagnetism was discovered by Anton Brugmans in 1778 when he observed that bismuth gets repelled by magnetic fields, thus theorizing that diamagnets get repelled by magnets.

Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetism

Materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt consist of magnetic domains, within which the magnetic dipoles are arranged parallel to each other. The magnetic dipoles are rigidly aligned in the same direction within a domain by quantum mechanical coupling among the atoms. This coupling is so strong that even thermal agitation at room temperature cannot break it. The result is that each domain has a net dipole moment. However, some materials have weaker coupling, and are ferromagnetic at lower...

Magnetic Damping

Magnetic Damping

Eddy currents can produce significant drag on motion, called magnetic damping. For instance, when a metallic pendulum bob swings between the poles of a strong magnet, significant drag acts on the bob as it enters and leaves the field, quickly damping the motion.
If, however, the bob is a slotted metal plate, the magnet produces a much smaller effect. When a slotted metal plate enters the field, an emf is induced by the change in flux; however, it is less effective because the slots limit the...

Diamagnetic Shielding of Nuclei: Local Diamagnetic Current

Diamagnetic Shielding of Nuclei: Local Diamagnetic Current

An applied magnetic field causes the electrons present in the molecule to circulate, setting up a local diamagnetic current within the molecule. The local diamagnetic current arising from circulating sigma-bonding electrons induces a magnetic field, Blocal that opposes the applied magnetic field, B0. The effective magnetic field experienced by these nuclei is given by the difference between the applied and local magnetic fields in a phenomenon called local diamagnetic shielding. Essentially,...

Potential Due to a Magnetized Object

Potential Due to a Magnetized Object

Magnetic dipoles in magnetic materials are aligned when placed under an external magnetic field. For paramagnets and ferromagnets, dipole alignment occurs in the direction of the magnetic field. However, the dipoles align opposite to the field in the case of diamagnets. This state of magnetic polarization due to the external field is called magnetization. Magnetization is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume. It plays a similar role to polarization in electrostatics.
The vector...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 2, 2026

Optimizing Magnetic Force Microscopy Resolution and Sensitivity to Visualize Nanoscale Magnetic Domains

Optimizing Magnetic Force Microscopy Resolution and Sensitivity to Visualize Nanoscale Magnetic Domains

Published on: July 20, 2022

Energy minimization and ac demagnetization in a nanomagnet array.

X Ke¹, J Li, C Nisoli

¹Department of Physics and Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.

Physical Review Letters

|September 4, 2008

Summary

We investigated AC demagnetization in frustrated ferromagnetic arrays. Even with small steps, the system

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Optimizing Magnetic Force Microscopy Resolution and Sensitivity to Visualize Nanoscale Magnetic Domains

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Optimized Setup and Protocol for Magnetic Domain Imaging with In Situ Hysteresis Measurement

Optimized Setup and Protocol for Magnetic Domain Imaging with In Situ Hysteresis Measurement

Published on: November 7, 2017

Area of Science:

Condensed matter physics
Magnetism
Statistical mechanics

Background:

Frustrated magnetic systems exhibit complex behaviors due to competing interactions.
Understanding the equilibrium states of disordered magnetic materials is crucial for technological applications.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the AC demagnetization process in frustrated arrays of single-domain ferromagnetic islands.
To exhaustively resolve magnetic degrees of freedom and analyze the resulting magnetic state.

Main Methods:

AC demagnetization protocol with varying step sizes.
Exhaustive resolution of Ising-like magnetic degrees of freedom.
Analysis of magnetostatic energy and comparison with ground-state energy.

Main Results:

Demagnetization protocols with smaller step sizes lead to lower final magnetostatic energy.
The system does not extrapolate to the ground-state energy even with fine-stepped protocols.
A complex disordered magnetic state is achieved.

Conclusions:

The AC demagnetization process in frustrated arrays results in a complex disordered state.
This state can be described by a maximum-entropy ensemble with nearest-neighbor correlations.
Achieving the true ground state requires protocols beyond simple AC demagnetization.