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Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism, or overactivity of the thyroid gland. It results from autoantibodies called thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, leading to overstimulation of hormone production and a hypermetabolic state.EtiologyAlthough considered idiopathic, Graves’ disease has well-established contributing factors. There is a strong genetic component, with increased prevalence in...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 2, 2026

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Published on: June 9, 2023

Poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma: diagnostic features and controversial issues.

Marco Volante¹, Ida Rapa, Mauro Papotti

¹Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, San Luigi Hospital, University of Turin, Regione Gonzole 10, 10043, Orbassano, Turin, Italy. marco.volante@unito.it

Endocrine Pathology

|September 4, 2008

Summary

Poorly differentiated thyroid carcinomas are a distinct tumor group with unique behavior. Identifying prognostic factors and molecular alterations like ras mutations is crucial for better classification and treatment.

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Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

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Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

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Spontaneous Murine Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer

Spontaneous Murine Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer

Published on: February 3, 2023

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Oncology
Pathology

Background:

Poorly differentiated thyroid carcinomas (PDTCs) represent an intermediate category between well-differentiated and anaplastic thyroid cancers.
These tumors exhibit distinct biological behavior, necessitating clear diagnostic criteria for accurate classification.
Understanding prognostic parameters is vital for clinical management and patient outcomes.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the morphological, immunohistochemical, and molecular characteristics of PDTCs.
To emphasize the importance of establishing homogeneous diagnostic criteria for PDTCs.
To discuss the clinical implications of prognostic factors and molecular alterations in PDTCs.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on poorly differentiated thyroid carcinomas.
Analysis of morphological and immunohistochemical features.
Examination of molecular data, particularly ras alterations.

Main Results:

PDTCs demonstrate a distinct biological behavior compared to other thyroid carcinoma types.
Ras alterations are identified as the most frequent molecular abnormality in PDTCs.
Morphological and molecular heterogeneity exists within PDTCs.

Conclusions:

A separate classification for PDTCs is justified based on their distinct characteristics.
Standardized diagnostic criteria are needed for improved characterization of PDTCs.
Further research into prognostic parameters and molecular pathways is essential for clinical practice.