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Related Concept Videos

Bias01:22

Bias

Bias refers to any tendency that prevents a question from being considered unprejudiced. In research, bias occurs when one outcome or answer is selected or encouraged over others in sampling or testing. Bias can occur during any research phase, including study design, data collection, analysis, and publication.
In statistics, a sampling bias is created when a sample is collected from a population, and some members of the population are not as likely to be chosen as others (remember, each member...
Confirmation Biases01:31

Confirmation Biases

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore information that is inconsistent with our expectations. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Have you ever fallen prey to the confirmation bias, either as the source or target of such bias?
Cause and Effect01:53

Cause and Effect

While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable, is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. For instance, as sales in ice cream increase, so does the overall rate of crime. Is it possible that indulging in your favorite flavor of ice cream could send you on a crime spree? Or, after committing crime do you think you might decide to treat yourself to a cone?
Surveys02:16

Surveys

Often, psychologists develop surveys as a means of gathering data. Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally. Generally, the survey itself can be completed in a short time, and the ease of administering a survey makes it easy to collect data from a large number of people.
Regression Toward the Mean01:52

Regression Toward the Mean

Regression toward the mean (“RTM”) is a phenomenon in which extremely high or low values—for example, and individual’s blood pressure at a particular moment—appear closer to a group’s average upon remeasuring. Although this statistical peculiarity is the result of random error and chance, it has been problematic across various medical, scientific, financial and psychological applications. In particular, RTM, if not taken into account, can interfere when researchers try to extrapolate results...
Bias in Epidemiological Studies01:29

Bias in Epidemiological Studies

Biases can arise at various stages of research, from study design and data collection to analysis and interpretation. Recognizing and addressing these biases is essential to ensure the validity and reliability of epidemiological findings.Broadly speaking, biases in epidemiology fall into three main categories: selection bias, information bias, and confounding. A more detailed description of possible biases is:

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 30, 2026

Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance
13:20

Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance

Published on: December 5, 2025

The moderator effect that wasn't there: statistical problems in ambivalence research.

Johannes Ullrich1, Karin Schermelleh-Engel, Björn Böttcher

  • 1Department of Psychology, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. ullrich@psych.uni-frankfurt.de

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
|September 24, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Researchers often simplify ambivalence measures, but this univariate approach may create statistical artifacts. A multivariate approach is recommended for valid ambivalence research and analysis.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 30, 2026

Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance
13:20

Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance

Published on: December 5, 2025

Area of Science:

  • Psychology
  • Social Psychology
  • Attitude Research

Background:

  • Ambivalence is often measured using a single index derived from positivity and negativity scores.
  • This univariate approach may confound statistical analyses and lead to invalid conclusions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To demonstrate a multivariate approach for testing assumptions of ambivalence models.
  • To address the potential for statistical artifacts in current ambivalence research.

Main Methods:

  • Computer simulations were used to test ambivalence model assumptions.
  • Reanalyses of published moderator effects were conducted.
  • Power analyses were performed to assess the detectability of moderator effects.

Main Results:

  • The univariate approach to ambivalence can produce statistical artifacts.
  • Reported moderator effects of ambivalence may be due to unmodeled correlations.
  • Detecting ambivalence moderator effects in observational data is challenging.

Conclusions:

  • A multivariate approach is crucial for valid ambivalence modeling.
  • Experimental designs are encouraged for studying ambivalence.
  • Researchers should adopt multivariate data analysis techniques for ambivalence research.