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Related Concept Videos

Associative Learning01:27

Associative Learning

Associative learning is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology, wherein a connection is established between two stimuli or events, leading to a learned response. This process is critical in understanding how behaviors are acquired and modified. Conditioning, the mechanism through which associations are formed, can be divided into two main types: classical conditioning and operant conditioning, each elucidating different aspects of associative learning.
Classical conditioning, also known...
Observational Learning01:12

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura's observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior. It is a quicker process than operant conditioning. A well-known example is the Bobo doll study, where children who saw an adult acting aggressively towards the doll were more likely to act aggressively when left alone, compared to those who observed a nonaggressive adult. Many psychologists view observational learning as a form of latent learning because...
Hindsight Biases01:12

Hindsight Biases

Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Can you relate this to the phrase "Hindsight is 20/20" now?
Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory01:29

Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory

Attribution theory plays a crucial role in social psychology, helping to explain how individuals interpret the causes of behavior. One prominent model within this field is Harold Kelley's covariation theory, which provides a systematic approach to determining whether internal traits or external circumstances drive a person's actions. The model posits that individuals rely on three key types of information—consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness—to make these judgments.Consensus: Comparing...
Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness01:14

Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

Avoidance learning and learned helplessness are critical concepts in understanding behavioral responses to negative stimuli.
Avoidance learning occurs when an organism learns that a specific behavior can prevent an unpleasant outcome. For example, a student who receives a bad grade may start studying harder to avoid future poor grades. This behavior persists even when the negative outcome is no longer present. Avoidance learning is powerful because it maintains behavior in the absence of the...
Prediction Intervals01:03

Prediction Intervals

The interval estimate of any variable is known as the prediction interval. It helps decide if a point estimate is dependable.
However, the point estimate is most likely not the exact value of the population parameter, but close to it. After calculating point estimates, we construct interval estimates, called confidence intervals or prediction intervals. This prediction interval comprises a range of values unlike the point estimate and is a better predictor of the observed sample value, y. 
The...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 30, 2026

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers
08:05

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

Published on: January 5, 2018

A dual role for prediction error in associative learning.

Hanneke E M den Ouden1, Karl J Friston, Nathaniel D Daw

  • 1Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK. h.denouden@fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk

Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991)
|September 30, 2008
PubMed
Summary

The brain learns statistical associations between sensory inputs, even when not paying attention. This incidental learning, driven by prediction errors, modifies brain connectivity to update causal models of the world.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 30, 2026

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers
08:05

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

Published on: January 5, 2018

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Cognitive Science
  • Computational Neuroscience

Background:

  • The brain constructs causal models of the world by learning statistical regularities across sensory domains.
  • Understanding how the brain learns associations, especially incidentally, is crucial for explaining perception and cognition.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide neurophysiological evidence for incidental associative learning.
  • To investigate the neural mechanisms underlying learning-dependent prediction errors and their impact on brain connectivity.

Main Methods:

  • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and dynamic causal modeling (DCM) were employed.
  • A Rescorla-Wagner (RW) model was used to quantify incidental learning of auditory-visual associations.
  • fMRI data were analyzed to identify brain regions reflecting prediction errors and to model changes in effective connectivity.

Main Results:

  • Activity in primary visual cortex and putamen reflected learning-dependent surprise, showing differential responses to predicted versus unpredicted visual stimuli.
  • Prediction-error signals were observed even when the absence of a visual stimulus was surprising.
  • Dynamic causal modeling revealed that auditory-to-visual connectivity changed over time, modulated by prediction error, supporting a role in associative plasticity.

Conclusions:

  • Associative learning occurs incidentally, even with task-irrelevant stimuli.
  • Prediction errors play a dual role in encoding surprise and driving associative plasticity through changes in neural connectivity.
  • Findings support predictive coding models, where learning is mediated by prediction-error-dependent synaptic plasticity.