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Related Concept Videos

Aging01:26

Aging

Aging is a complex biological phenomenon influenced by various processes that affect cellular and systemic functions. Several prominent theories attempt to explain its mechanisms, highlighting cellular limitations, oxidative damage, and hormonal changes as central factors in aging.
Cellular Clock Theory
The cellular clock theory posits that the human lifespan is closely tied to the finite capacity of cells to divide, a phenomenon governed by telomeres, which are protective caps at the ends of...
Neurogenesis and Regeneration of Nervous Tissue01:15

Neurogenesis and Regeneration of Nervous Tissue

In the CNS, neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons from stem cells, is limited to the hippocampus in adults. In other regions of the brain and spinal cord, neurogenesis is almost non-existent due to inhibitory influences from neuroglia, especially oligodendrocytes, and the absence of growth-stimulating cues. The myelin produced by oligodendrocytes in the CNS inhibits neuronal regeneration. Furthermore, astrocytes proliferate rapidly after neuronal damage, forming scar tissue that physically...
Alzheimer Disease ll: Pathophysiology01:23

Alzheimer Disease ll: Pathophysiology

Alzheimer disease involves structural changes in the brain that begin long before symptoms appear. The most distinctive features are extracellular neuritic plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles.Neuritic plaques form in the cerebral cortex and around blood vessels. These plaques contain a dense core of beta-amyloid (Aβ)—a toxic protein fragment that clumps outside neurons. The core is surrounded by damaged neuronal extensions, as well as reactive astrocytes and microglia. Abnormal...
Neural Regulation01:37

Neural Regulation

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Long-term Depression01:03

Long-term Depression

Long-term depression, or LTD, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTD is the process of synaptic weakening that occurs over time between pre and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic weakening of LTD works in opposition to synaptic strengthening by long-term potentiation (LTP) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.
Calcium Ion Concentration Mechanism
If over time, all...
Regulation of Expression Occurs at Multiple Steps02:24

Regulation of Expression Occurs at Multiple Steps

Gene expression can be regulated at almost every step from gene to protein. Transcription is the step that is most commonly regulated. This involves the binding of proteins to short regulatory sequences on the DNA. This association can either promote or inhibit the transcription of a gene associated with the respective sequence.
Transcription results in the generation of precursor (pre-mRNA) that consists of both exons and introns, which needs further processing before being translated to a...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 29, 2026

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient
08:30

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Published on: September 17, 2011

Evolution of the aging brain transcriptome and synaptic regulation.

Patrick M Loerch1, Tao Lu, Kelly A Dakin

  • 1Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

Plos One
|October 3, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Brain aging differs across species, with humans and macaques showing significant age-related repression of neuronal genes, unlike mice. This neuronal gene downregulation may impact cognitive function in aging humans and primates.

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Published on: September 17, 2011

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Genomics
  • Comparative Biology

Background:

  • Aging brains exhibit species-specific changes, particularly in neurodegenerative disorders.
  • Understanding conserved and divergent gene expression patterns during aging is crucial for insights into human brain evolution.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare genome-wide, age-related gene expression in the cortex of humans, rhesus macaques, and mice.
  • To identify conserved and species-specific molecular mechanisms of brain aging.

Main Methods:

  • Genome-wide gene expression analysis in the cortex of three species across different ages.
  • Gene ontology and cell type localization analysis.
  • mRNA and protein level validation for key genes.

Main Results:

  • A small subset of age-related gene expression changes are conserved, including apolipoprotein D (APOD) upregulation and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (CAMK4) downregulation.
  • Humans and macaques show increased age-dependent repression of neuronal genes compared to mice.
  • Genes involved in synaptic function, particularly GABA-ergic inhibitory function, are downregulated in aged human brains at mRNA and protein levels, without significant neuronal loss.

Conclusions:

  • Neuronal gene repression is a significant, recently evolved feature of brain aging in humans and macaques.
  • This age-related repression of neuronal genes may contribute to altered neural networks and cognitive decline.
  • Comparative genomics provides insights into species-specific aging mechanisms and their potential impact on cognition.