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Related Concept Videos

Urea Cycle01:23

Urea Cycle

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The urea cycle describes how liver cells convert ammonia to urea. Ammonia is a toxic waste product of protein catabolism. Land animals must convert ammonia into the less toxic urea which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys through urine. Marine animals excrete ammonia directly, and the surrounding water dilutes the ammonia to safe levels.
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Metallic Solids

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Metallic solids such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron are formed by metal atoms. The structure of metallic crystals is often described as a uniform distribution of atomic nuclei within a “sea” of delocalized electrons. The atoms within such a metallic solid are held together by a unique force known as metallic bonding that gives rise to many useful and varied bulk properties.
All metallic solids exhibit high thermal and electrical conductivity, metallic luster, and malleability....
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Structures of Solids02:22

Structures of Solids

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Solids in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a definite repeating pattern are known as crystalline solids. Metals and ionic compounds typically form ordered, crystalline solids. A crystalline solid has a precise melting temperature because each atom or molecule of the same type is held in place with the same forces or energy. Amorphous solids or non-crystalline solids (or, sometimes, glasses) which lack an ordered internal structure and are randomly arranged. Substances that...
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Network Covalent Solids02:18

Network Covalent Solids

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Network covalent solids contain a three-dimensional network of covalently bonded atoms as found in the crystal structures of nonmetals like diamond, graphite, silicon, and some covalent compounds, such as silicon dioxide (sand) and silicon carbide (carborundum, the abrasive on sandpaper). Many minerals have networks of covalent bonds.
To break or to melt a covalent network solid, covalent bonds must be broken. Because covalent bonds are relatively strong, covalent network solids are typically...
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Molecular and Ionic Solids02:54

Molecular and Ionic Solids

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Crystalline solids are divided into four types: molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network based on the type of constituent units and their interparticle interactions.
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Molecular crystalline solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine, are solids that are composed of neutral molecules as their constituent units. These molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces such as London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, or hydrogen bonds, which...
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Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids02:26

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

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Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape); in a gas, they are far apart with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape). Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions (cannot flow) and do not generally move in relation to one another; in a liquid, they move past each other (can flow) but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 25, 2026

Manufacturing of a Nafion-coated, Reduced Graphene Oxide/Polyaniline Chemiresistive Sensor to Monitor pH in Real-time During Microbial Fermentation
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Tetraphenylborate doped polyaniline based novel pH sensor and solid-state urea biosensor.

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|October 31, 2008
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Summary

A novel polymer-modified electrode enables pH sensing in various mediums. This electrode also forms the basis for a new urea biosensor with a low detection limit.

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Area of Science:

  • Electrochemistry
  • Materials Science
  • Analytical Chemistry

Background:

  • Developing versatile pH sensors for diverse media is crucial.
  • Polymer-modified electrodes offer unique sensing capabilities.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To report a novel polymer-modified electrode for pH sensing in aqueous and non-aqueous solutions.
  • To develop a urea biosensor utilizing this polymer-modified electrode.

Main Methods:

  • Electrochemical polymerization of aniline to create a polymer-modified electrode.
  • Characterization using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).
  • Testing pH sensing with acetic acid and ammonium hydroxide in various media; constructing a urea biosensor with immobilized urease.

Main Results:

  • The polymer-modified electrode demonstrated pH sensing capabilities in both aqueous and non-aqueous environments.
  • A pH sensitivity slope of approximately 86 mV/pH was achieved.
  • The developed urea biosensor exhibited a maximum response of 160 mV at 25°C with a detection limit of 20 μM.

Conclusions:

  • The novel polymer-modified electrode is effective for pH sensing across different mediums.
  • The electrode serves as a robust platform for developing sensitive urea biosensors.