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ATP Synthase: Structure

ATP Synthase: Structure

ATP synthase or ATPase is among the most conserved proteins found in bacteria, mammals, and plants. This enzyme can catalyze a forward reaction in response to the electrochemical gradient, producing ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. ATP synthase can also work in a reverse direction by hydrolyzing ATP and generating an electrochemical gradient. Different forms of ATP synthases have evolved special features to meet the specific demands of the cell. Based on their specific feature, ATP...

ATP Driven Pumps III: V-type Pumps

ATP Driven Pumps III: V-type Pumps

V-type pumps are ATP-driven pumps found in the vacuolar membranes of plants, yeast, endosomal and lysosomal membranes of animal cells, plasma membranes of a few specialized eukaryotic cells, and some prokaryotes. They are also known as the V1Vo-ATPase, that couple ATP hydrolysis to transport protons against a concentration gradient.
The peripheral or cytosolic V1 domain with eight subunits is involved in ATP hydrolysis. The integral or transmembrane V0 domain containing at least five subunits...

ATP Synthase: Mechanism

ATP Synthase: Mechanism

In animals, the mitochondrial F1F0 ATP synthase is the key protein that synthesizes ATP molecules through a complex catalytic mechanism. While the nuclear genome encodes the majority of ATP synthase subunits, the mitochondrial genome encodes some of the enzyme's most critical components. The formation of this multi-subunit enzyme is a complex multi-step process regulated at the level of transcription, translation, and assembly. Defects in one or more of these steps can result in decreased ATP...

Atomic Force Microscopy

Atomic Force Microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy that can analyze topographic details of various specimens like ceramics, glass, polymers, and biological samples. AFM offers over 1000 times more resolution than the optical imaging system. Images generated from AFM are three-dimensional surface profiles, offering an advantage over the flat, two-dimensional images from other imaging techniques.
The AFM Probe
The probe is regarded as the heart of any AFM setup and comprises the...

Generation of Straight or Branched Actin Filaments

Generation of Straight or Branched Actin Filaments

The straight or branched structure formation of actin filaments is controlled by nucleating proteins such as the formins and Arp2/3 complex. Formin-mediated assembly results in straight filaments, whereas Arp2/3 protein complex-mediated assembly results in branched actin filaments.
Arp2/3 Complex
Arp2/3 complex is a seven-subunit complex consisting of two proteins similar to actin- Arp2 and Arp3, and five other subunits that help keep Arp2 and Arp3 inactive. When required, the complex is...

Hydrolysis of ATP

Hydrolysis of ATP

The bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) can be broken through the addition of water, releasing one or two phosphate groups in an exergonic process called hydrolysis. This reaction liberates the energy in the bonds for use in the cell—for instance, to synthesize proteins from amino acids.
If one phosphate group is removed, a molecule of ADP—adenosine diphosphate—remains, along with inorganic phosphate. ADP can be further hydrolyzed to AMP—adenosine monophosphate—by the removal of a second...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 28, 2026

Application of Monolayer Graphene to Cryo-Electron Microscopy Grids for High-resolution Structure Determination

Application of Monolayer Graphene to Cryo-Electron Microscopy Grids for High-resolution Structure Determination

Published on: November 10, 2023

Free-standing graphene at atomic resolution.

Mhairi H Gass¹, Ursel Bangert, Andrew L Bleloch

¹SuperSTEM, STFC Daresbury Laboratory, Warrington WA4 4AD, UK. m.h.gass@liv.ac.uk

Nature Nanotechnology

|November 8, 2008

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers confirmed free-standing, single-layer graphene using atomic imaging and plasmon studies. This research explores graphene

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Area of Science:

Materials Science
Condensed Matter Physics
Nanotechnology

Background:

Graphene, a single atomic layer of carbon atoms, has garnered significant research interest due to its unique electronic properties.
These properties include charge carriers behaving like ultra-relativistic particles and ballistic electron transport at room temperature.
Graphene's characteristics have enabled advancements like field-effect transistors and the quantum Hall effect at room temperature.

Purpose of the Study:

To confirm the existence of free-standing, single-layer graphene.
To investigate the morphology and stability of graphene sheets at the atomic scale.
To study the evolution and interaction of point defects in graphene.

Main Methods:

Atomic-resolution imaging was employed for direct visualization of graphene structure.
Spatially resolved studies of pi --> pi* transitions and pi + sigma plasmons were conducted.
Microstructural analysis was performed to understand sheet stability and defect behavior.

Main Results:

The presence of free-standing, single-layer graphene was confirmed through direct imaging.
Atomic-scale observations revealed the morphology of graphene sheets and identified microstructural features influencing stability.
The evolution and interaction of point defects were tracked, leading to a proposed mechanism for ring defect formation.

Conclusions:

This study provides direct evidence and detailed atomic-scale insights into free-standing graphene.
Understanding microstructural peculiarities and defect dynamics is crucial for optimizing graphene sheet stability.
The proposed defect formation mechanism contributes to the fundamental knowledge of graphene's atomic behavior.