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Translation

Translation

Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of Life

Translation

Translation

Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of Life

From DNA to Protein

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of mRNAs, which in turn specify the sequence of amino acids making up all proteins. The decoding of one molecule to another is performed by specific proteins and RNAs. Because the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, it makes intuitive sense that the cell would make mRNA copies of this information for protein synthesis...

Leaky Scanning

Leaky Scanning

During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA. Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R stands for...

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between DNA and Proteins
In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that DNA stores all the information needed for cellular functions and that proteins perform most of these functions. However, the mechanisms of converting genetic information into functional proteins remained unknown for many years. Initially, it was believed that a single gene is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

Removal of an Internal Translational Start Site from mRNA While Retaining Expression of the Full-Length Protein

Removal of an Internal Translational Start Site from mRNA While Retaining Expression of the Full-Length Protein

Published on: March 16, 2022

Translating organellar glutamine codons: a case by case scenario?

Mathieu Frechin¹, Anne-Marie Duchêne, Hubert Dominique Becker

¹UPR Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, Université Louis Pasteur de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.

|December 25, 2008

Summary

Glutaminyl-tRNA (Q-tRNA) synthesis varies between direct and indirect pathways. Organellar Q-tRNA synthesis in eukaryotes remains difficult to predict, with differing mechanisms observed across species.

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Last Updated: Jun 26, 2026

Removal of an Internal Translational Start Site from mRNA While Retaining Expression of the Full-Length Protein

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Published on: March 16, 2022

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Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Published on: August 1, 2016

Area of Science:

Molecular Biology
Genetics
Biochemistry

Background:

Aminoacyl-tRNAs are typically synthesized directly by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases.
Glutaminyl-tRNA (Gln-tRNA) synthesis is an exception, occurring via direct or indirect pathways.
The indirect pathway involves transamidation, common in bacteria and archaea.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the mechanisms of organellar glutaminyl-tRNA synthesis in eukaryotes.
To clarify the pathway used for glutaminyl-tRNA(Gln) formation in eukaryotic organelles.

Main Methods:

Analysis of eukaryotic genome sequences for genes encoding glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase (QRS) and tRNA-dependent amidotransferase (AdT) subunits.
Review of existing literature on QRS and AdT activities in various eukaryotic organelles.

Main Results:

Eukaryotic genomes possess a QRS gene for cytosolic activity and a gene for a mitochondrial AdT subunit.
Glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase activity is found in protozoan mitochondria, while AdT activity is identified in plant organelles.
The specific pathway for glutaminyl-tRNA synthesis in yeast and mammalian mitochondria remains undetermined.

Conclusions:

The synthesis pathway for organellar glutaminyl-tRNA in eukaryotes is not easily predictable.
Both direct (QRS) and indirect (AdT) enzymatic activities are present in eukaryotic organelles, but their roles in glutaminyl-tRNA synthesis vary.
Further research is needed to elucidate the precise mechanisms in yeast and mammalian mitochondria.