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Related Concept Videos

States of Water01:23

States of Water

Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the intermolecular forces that draw molecules together and ii) the kinetic energy that leads to movements that pull them apart.
Water freezes when the intermolecular forces are greater than the kinetic energy. Unlike most other substances, water is less dense in its solid state than in its liquid state. This is because each water molecule can form...
Hydrogen Bonds01:04

Hydrogen Bonds

A hydrogen bond is formed when a weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (for example, the oxygen in the water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another polar molecule, such as water (H2O), hydrogen fluoride (HF), or ammonia (NH3). The huge electronegativity difference between the H atom (2.1) and the atom to which it is bonded (4.0 for an F atom, 3.5 for an O atom, or 3.0 for an N atom), combined with the very small size of an H atom...
Hydrogen Bonds00:26

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen BondsHydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, and has a partial negative charge. The other is a hydrogen atom that has bonded with another electronegative atom and has a partial positive charge.Hydrogen Bonds Control the World!Because hydrogen has very weak electronegativity when it binds with a strongly electronegative atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen, electrons in the bond are...
Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility02:34

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, and solubilities (miscibilities) of substances. Molar mass, molecular shape, and polarity affect the strength of different intermolecular forces, which influence the magnitude of physical properties across a family of molecules.
Temporary attractive forces like dispersion are present in all molecules, whether they are polar or nonpolar. They...
Intermolecular Forces03:13

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions (attractive or repulsive) between charged species (permanent, partial, or temporary charges) and exist with varying strengths between ions, polar, nonpolar, and neutral molecules. The different types of intermolecular forces are ion–dipole, dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonds, and dispersion; among these, dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonds, and dispersion...
Intermolecular Forces03:13

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions (attractive or repulsive) between charged species (permanent, partial, or temporary charges) and exist with varying strengths between ions, polar, nonpolar, and neutral molecules. The different types of intermolecular forces are ion–dipole, dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonds, and dispersion; among these, dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonds, and dispersion...

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Observation of the Charge Resonance Band of Hemibonded (H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> in the Gas Phase.

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Infrared Spectroscopy of Protonated Ethane in Helium Droplets.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

A Microfluidic Approach for the Study of Ice and Clathrate Hydrate Crystallization
08:01

A Microfluidic Approach for the Study of Ice and Clathrate Hydrate Crystallization

Published on: August 18, 2022

Hydrogen clusters that remain fluid at low temperature.

Kirill Kuyanov-Prozument1, Andrey F Vilesov

  • 1Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA.

Physical Review Letters
|December 31, 2008
PubMed
Summary

Researchers observed liquid para-hydrogen (pH2) clusters at low temperatures, suggesting potential superfluidity. This finding overcomes challenges posed by hydrogen

Area of Science:

  • Quantum fluid dynamics
  • Low-temperature physics
  • Molecular spectroscopy

Background:

  • Superfluidity in para-hydrogen (pH2) was theoretically predicted decades ago.
  • Experimental observation has been hindered by hydrogen's high freezing temperature (13.8 K).

Purpose of the Study:

  • To experimentally investigate the potential superfluidity of para-hydrogen clusters.
  • To overcome the limitations imposed by high freezing temperatures.

Main Methods:

  • Generating large para-hydrogen clusters using a cryogenic pulsed free jet expansion.
  • Analyzing cluster states using nonlinear Raman spectroscopy.

Main Results:

  • Neat pH2 clusters were found to be solid, indicated by the splitting of the S0(0) rotational line.

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  • pH2 clusters diluted in Helium (<1%) exhibited a single S0(0) line, remaining liquid at 1-2 K.
  • This liquid state was observed near the estimated superfluid transition temperature.

    • Conclusions:

    • Diluting para-hydrogen in Helium enables the observation of liquid clusters at temperatures conducive to superfluidity.
    • This research provides a pathway to experimentally explore hydrogen superfluidity.