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Related Concept Videos

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology01:24

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...
Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology01:27

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...
Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones01:20

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...
Graves' Disease I: Introduction01:28

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism, or overactivity of the thyroid gland. It results from autoantibodies called thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, leading to overstimulation of hormone production and a hypermetabolic state.EtiologyAlthough considered idiopathic, Graves’ disease has well-established contributing factors. There is a strong genetic component, with increased prevalence in...
Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction01:25

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...
The Thyroid Gland01:23

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer
03:55

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Published on: June 9, 2023

Recent developments in predicting thyroid malignancy.

Michael T Stang1, Sally E Carty

  • 1Section of Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.

Current Opinion in Oncology
|January 7, 2009
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Large thyroid nodules (> or =4 cm) are independent predictors of malignancy. Advanced techniques like nuclear imaging and molecular markers show promise in improving the diagnosis of thyroid cancer, potentially altering clinical management.

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Oncology
  • Diagnostic Imaging

Background:

  • Thyroid nodules are increasingly prevalent, necessitating accurate risk assessment for malignancy.
  • Ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) is the standard for evaluating thyroid nodules but has limitations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review potential predictors of thyroid malignancy.
  • To discuss how these predictors can influence clinical management strategies.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current literature on thyroid nodule evaluation.
  • Analysis of novel diagnostic adjuncts to FNAB.
  • Evaluation of imaging and molecular marker utility.

Main Results:

  • Large tumor size (>=4 cm) is an independent predictor of thyroid malignancy.
  • 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) may help exclude malignancy in indeterminate nodules.
  • Molecular markers in blood and FNAB show potential for increased specificity in identifying malignant nodules.

Conclusions:

  • FNAB of large nodules has a high false-negative rate, suggesting diagnostic lobectomy.
  • Nodule size >=4 cm and indeterminate lesions warrant consideration for initial total thyroidectomy.
  • Nuclear imaging and molecular markers offer promising adjunctive tools for thyroid cancer diagnosis.