The ophthalmoscope: Helmholtz's Augenspiegel

The origins of Helmholtz's invention of the ophthalmoscope are found in the ancient observation that the back of the eye appeared black. In 1703, Jean Méry reported that the luminosity of the cat's eye could be seen when the animal was held under water, and Mariotte observed that a dog's eye was luminous but erroneously thought this was because its choroid was white. Prévost made a breakthrough when he deduced it was incident light and not light coming out of the eye. Purkinje and von Brucke used lenses to attempt to see the fundus and almost succeeded. However, it was Helmholtz who created the first useable ophthalmoscope, whose development and clinical application are traced in this paper. One of the greatest physical scientists in many spheres of learning, his biography is briefly sketched.