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Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Nuclear reprogramming is a process of transforming one cell type into an unrelated cell type by epigenetic changes that alter the cell’s original gene expression pattern. Such epigenetic changes force cells to express a different set of genes, which play a significant role in inducing transformation into other cell types. Nuclear reprogramming offers applications in reproductive cloning for livestock propagation and regenerative medicine — developing patient-specific cells for injury repair.

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Reprogramming alters the gene expression in somatic cells, transforming them into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells over several generations. Scientists can reprogram cells by introducing genes for four transcription factors—Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc (OSKM) by viral or non-viral methods. These factors are also known as Yamanaka factors after Shinya Yamanaka, who first generated iPS cells using mouse skin cells. Yamanaka was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2012 for this...

Introduction to Nuclear Reprogramming

Introduction to Nuclear Reprogramming

Nuclear reprogramming is the process of switching gene expression of one cell type to that of another cell type, usually from a differentiated cell state to an undifferentiated cell state. Differentiation occurs during processes such as development and morphogenesis, tissue regeneration, and malignancy. Cells can also be artificially induced to reprogram their gene expression by techniques such as nuclear transfer, induced pluripotency, and cell fusion. Such techniques have many applications in...

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that divide and produce different cell types. Ordinarily, cells that have differentiated into a specific cell type are terminally differentiated; however, scientists have found a way to reprogram these mature cells so that they dedifferentiate and return to an unspecialized, proliferative state. These cells are pluripotent like embryonic stem cells—able to produce all cell types—and are called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
Somatic cells are...

Chromatin Modification in iPS Cells

Chromatin Modification in iPS Cells

Chromatin modification alters gene expression; therefore, scientists can add histone-modifying enzymes, histone variants, and chromatin remodeling complexes to somatic cells to aid reprogramming into pluripotent stem (iPS) cells.
Compact chromatin makes reprogramming difficult. Enzymes, such as histone demethylases and acetyltransferases, are often added during reprogramming to loosen the chromatin, making the DNA more accessible to transcription factors. Molecules that inhibit histone...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

Using Mouse Oocytes to Assess Human Gene Function During Meiosis I

Using Mouse Oocytes to Assess Human Gene Function During Meiosis I

Published on: April 10, 2018

Reprogramming of human somatic cells using human and animal oocytes.

Young Chung¹, Colin E Bishop, Nathan R Treff

¹Advanced Cell Technology, Worcester, MA 01605, USA. rlanza@advancedcell.com

Cloning and Stem Cells

|February 4, 2009

Summary

Animal oocytes show poor reprogramming of human somatic cells compared to human oocytes. This difference in gene expression, particularly for pluripotency genes, questions the use of animal oocytes for patient-specific stem cell generation.

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In vivo Reprogramming of Adult Somatic Cells to Pluripotency by Overexpression of Yamanaka Factors

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Last Updated: Jun 26, 2026

Using Mouse Oocytes to Assess Human Gene Function During Meiosis I

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Published on: April 10, 2018

Selecting and Isolating Colonies of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Reprogrammed from Adult Fibroblasts

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In vivo Reprogramming of Adult Somatic Cells to Pluripotency by Overexpression of Yamanaka Factors

In vivo Reprogramming of Adult Somatic Cells to Pluripotency by Overexpression of Yamanaka Factors

Published on: December 17, 2013

Area of Science:

Reproductive Biology
Stem Cell Biology
Genomics

Background:

Renewed interest exists in using animal oocytes for human somatic cell reprogramming.
Successful reprogramming is crucial for generating patient-specific stem cells.

Purpose of the Study:

To compare the reprogramming efficiency of human somatic nuclei using human versus animal oocytes.
To analyze gene expression patterns in embryos derived from interspecies and intraspecies somatic cell transfer.

Main Methods:

Somatic cell nuclear transfer into human, bovine, and rabbit oocytes.
Single-embryo transcriptome amplification and global gene expression analysis.
Genomic DNA fingerprinting and PCR analysis for nuclear origin confirmation.
Differential gene expression analysis using t-tests, accounting for maternal gene expression.

Main Results:

Human-human, human-bovine, and human-rabbit clones developed to the morula stage at similar rates.
Gene expression reprogramming was significantly different: human oocytes extensively upregulated pluripotency genes (Oct-4, Sox-2, Nanog), while animal oocytes showed no difference or downregulation.
Interspecies clones (human-bovine, human-rabbit) exhibited significant gene downregulation compared to human-human clones and in vitro fertilization (IVF) embryos.

Conclusions:

Animal oocytes, particularly bovine and rabbit, are inefficient at reprogramming human somatic cell nuclei.
The failure to upregulate key pluripotency genes in interspecies clones suggests they are not effectively reprogrammed.
These findings question the utility of animal oocytes for generating patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells due to discordant reprogramming.