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Parasympathetic Signaling

Parasympathetic Signaling

Parasympathetic signaling plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes. It involves the release of acetylcholine (ACh) by parasympathetic neurons, which can have localized and short-lived effects. The majority of ACh released is rapidly inactivated at the synapse by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which hydrolyzes Ach into choline and acetate. Additionally, the tissue cholinesterase deactivates any ACh diffusing into the surrounding tissues.
The effects of...

Cholinergic Receptors: Muscarinic

Cholinergic Receptors: Muscarinic

The pharmacological actions of acetylcholine are elicited via its binding to two families of cholinergic receptors or cholinoceptors, namely, muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Muscarinic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors and have five subtypes, M1–M5. All mAChR subtypes are activated by acetylcholine and blocked by the antagonist, atropine.
The subtypes M1, M3, and M5 couple with the Gq subunit and activate the phospholipase C (PLC) activity, mobilizing intracellular Ca2+. Activation...

Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division

Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division

The cranial part of the parasympathetic division plays a crucial role in regulating the visceral functions of the head and specific structures in the neck, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities. Preganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division exit the brain through cranial nerves III (oculomotor), VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus), delivering parasympathetic output to the respective visceral structures.
The vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) alone accounts for approximately 75...

Parasympathetic Division of the ANS

Parasympathetic Division of the ANS

The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates rest and digestion functions in the body. It works in opposition to the sympathetic division, promoting relaxation, conservation of energy, and digestion. The parasympathetic division consists of preganglionic fibers originating from specific cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, X) and the sacral spinal nerves (S2-S4). These fibers synapse with postganglionic neurons in the terminal ganglia, innervating various organs and...

Sympathetic Pathways: Collateral Ganglia and Adrenal Medulla

Sympathetic Pathways: Collateral Ganglia and Adrenal Medulla

The sympathetic pathways of the collateral ganglia and adrenal medulla serve unique but interconnected roles in the sympathetic response.
Collateral Ganglia
Sympathetic preganglionic axons reach the collateral ganglia along the route of splanchnic nerves. These nerves bypass the sympathetic trunk and communicate with sympathetic postganglionic neurons housed in the prevertebral ganglia. These ganglia supply the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity.
The greater splanchnic nerve, formed by the...

Renewal of Intestinal Stem Cells

Renewal of Intestinal Stem Cells

The intestinal epithelial lining rapidly renews every 4 to 5 days. The renewal is facilitated by intestinal stem cells (ISCs) located at the base of the crypt– a gland located at the bottom of each villus. ISCs divide asymmetrically to form new stem cells and progenitor daughter cells. The daughter cells are called transit-amplifying (TA) cells which move upwards along the crypt and either differentiate into absorptive cells– the enterocytes or secretory cells– including the goblet,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Isolation and Culture of Chick Ciliary Ganglion Neurons

Isolation and Culture of Chick Ciliary Ganglion Neurons

Published on: August 8, 2020

Cholinergic innervation in the developing chick cloaca and colorectum.

Anne-Marie O'Donnell¹, Prem Puri

¹National Children's Hospital, Tallaght, Dublin, Ireland.

Journal of Pediatric Surgery

|February 24, 2009

Summary

Cholinergic innervation, crucial for gut motility, increases in the developing chick embryo cloaca and colorectum. This study maps acetylcholine esterase (AchE) positive nerves, revealing developmental patterns in the embryonic hindgut.

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Last Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Isolation and Culture of Chick Ciliary Ganglion Neurons

Isolation and Culture of Chick Ciliary Ganglion Neurons

Published on: August 8, 2020

Immunostaining to Visualize Murine Enteric Nervous System Development

Immunostaining to Visualize Murine Enteric Nervous System Development

Published on: April 29, 2015

Using a Whole-mount Immunohistochemical Method to Study the Innervation of the Biliary Tract in Suncus murinus

Using a Whole-mount Immunohistochemical Method to Study the Innervation of the Biliary Tract in Suncus murinus

Published on: June 15, 2017

Area of Science:

Developmental biology
Neuroscience
Gastroenterology

Background:

Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter governing gastrointestinal motility.
Acetylcholinesterase (AchE) histochemistry visualizes cholinergic nerve distribution.
Persistent cloaca in human infants resembles the avian embryonic cloaca.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the development of cholinergic innervation in the chick embryo cloaca and colorectum.
To map the distribution and density of acetylcholine-esterase positive nerves during embryonic development.

Main Methods:

Chick embryos were studied at embryonic days 12, 14, 16, and 18.
Cloacal and colorectal tissues were harvested, frozen, and sectioned.
AchE histochemistry was performed, and staining intensity was evaluated via light microscopy.

Main Results:

Acetylcholine expression increased in the cloaca and colorectum from embryonic day 12 to 18.
AchE-positive ganglia and nerve fibers were observed in the submucosal and myenteric plexuses at all studied stages.
Ganglia size and the density of AchE-positive nerve fibers notably increased with embryonic age.

Conclusions:

Cholinergic innervation significantly increases in both the embryonic cloaca and colorectum during development.
The study provides insights into regional differences in hindgut cholinergic development.
Findings contribute to understanding the neurodevelopmental basis of gastrointestinal motility.