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Related Concept Videos

Biological Effects of Radiation02:59

Biological Effects of Radiation

All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, α and β particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they produce ions...
Radiation: Applications01:17

Radiation: Applications

The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives almost all its energy from the radiation of the Sun and reflects some of it into outer space. Dark space is very cold, about 3 K, so Earth radiates energy into it. For instance, heat transfer occurs from soil and grasses, the rate of which can be so rapid that frost can occur on clear summer evenings, even in warm latitudes.
The average...
Mutations01:35

Mutations

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations can be characterized in a number of different ways: whether and how they alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, whether they occur over a small or large area of DNA, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells.
Chromosomal Alterations Are Large-Scale Mutations
While point mutations are changes in a single nucleotide in...
X-ray Imaging01:24

X-ray Imaging

German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible "ray" would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his bones on a screen coated with a metal compound. In 1895, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an "X-ray" image (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists worldwide quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-ray was widely...
Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving01:09

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving

The radiation pressure applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface equals the energy density of the wave. The wave's momentum also gets transferred to the surface when an electromagnetic wave is entirely absorbed by it. The rate at which momentum is transmitted to an absorbing surface perpendicular to the propagation direction equals the force on the surface.
The average value of the rate of momentum transfer divided by the absorbing area represents the average force per...
Absorption of Radiation01:05

Absorption of Radiation

The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation:

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 25, 2026

An Automated Microscopic Scoring Method for the &#947;-H2AX Foci Assay in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes
08:23

An Automated Microscopic Scoring Method for the γ-H2AX Foci Assay in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Published on: December 25, 2021

A beginner's guide to radiation damage.

James M Holton1

  • 1Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158-2330, USA. jmholton@lbl.gov

Journal of Synchrotron Radiation
|February 26, 2009
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This guide simplifies radiation damage in protein crystallography, offering practical advice for researchers. It covers average and worst-case scenarios for X-ray data collection at cryogenic temperatures.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 25, 2026

An Automated Microscopic Scoring Method for the &#947;-H2AX Foci Assay in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes
08:23

An Automated Microscopic Scoring Method for the γ-H2AX Foci Assay in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Published on: December 25, 2021

Area of Science:

  • Structural biology
  • Biophysics
  • Crystallography

Background:

  • Recent advances in understanding radiation damage to protein crystals, especially at cryogenic temperatures, have led to a complex body of literature.
  • Protein crystallographers focused on solving biologically relevant structures may find the technical depth and breadth of this literature daunting.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide a simplified guide to radiation damage issues encountered in protein crystallography.
  • To offer practical advice for researchers, particularly those new to the field, regarding data collection strategies.
  • To direct readers to more detailed and exacting resources for in-depth study.

Main Methods:

  • Discussion of radiation damage effects on protein crystals.
  • Consideration of data collection practicalities under cryogenic conditions.
  • Analysis of both average crystal behavior and worst-case scenarios.

Main Results:

  • Identification of key radiation damage concerns relevant to practical data collection.
  • Insights into the unpredictable nature of radiation damage.
  • Guidance on managing radiation damage for successful structure determination.

Conclusions:

  • Effective management of radiation damage is crucial for successful protein structure determination.
  • Understanding radiation damage, even without deep physics knowledge, is essential for modern protein crystallography.
  • This guide serves as an accessible entry point to managing radiation damage in structural biology research.