Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between DNA and Proteins
In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that DNA stores all the information needed for cellular functions and that proteins perform most of these functions. However, the mechanisms of converting genetic information into functional proteins remained unknown for many years. Initially, it was believed that a single gene is...

The Central Dogma

The Central Dogma

From DNA to Protein

From DNA to Protein

The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of mRNAs, which in turn specify the sequence of amino acids making up all proteins. The decoding of one molecule to another is performed by specific proteins and RNAs. Because the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, it makes intuitive sense that the cell would make mRNA copies of this information for protein synthesis...

What is Genetic Engineering?

What is Genetic Engineering?

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

While every living organism has a genome of some kind (be it RNA, or DNA), there is considerable variation in the sizes of these blueprints. One major factor that impacts genome size is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In prokaryotes, the genome contains little to no non-coding sequence, such that genes are tightly clustered in groups or operons sequentially along the chromosome. Conversely, the genes in eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of non-coding sequence.

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

While every living organism has a genome of some kind (be it RNA, or DNA), there is considerable variation in the sizes of these blueprints. One major factor that impacts genome size is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In prokaryotes, the genome contains little to no non-coding sequence, such that genes are tightly clustered in groups or operons sequentially along the chromosome. Conversely, the genes in eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of non-coding sequence.

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Clocking intestinal absorption.

Nature cell biology·2026

Same author

Sperm miRNAs exercise benefits.

Nature cell biology·2025

Same author

Never let you go.

Nature cell biology·2025

Same author

Grow up, beta cells.

Nature cell biology·2025

Same author

Timing is everything.

Nature cell biology·2025

Same author

Expanding the genetic code of Caenorhabditis elegans using bacterial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase/tRNA pairs.

ACS chemical biology·2012

Same journal

The Hedgehog Pathway Effector Smoothened Exhibits Signaling Competency in the Absence of Ciliary Accumulation.

Chemistry & biology·2017

Same journal

DIVERSE System: De Novo Creation of Peptide Tags for Non-enzymatic Covalent Labeling by In Vitro Evolution for Protein Imaging Inside Living Cells.

Chemistry & biology·2015

Same journal

Differential Regulation of Specific Sphingolipids in Colon Cancer Cells during Staurosporine-Induced Apoptosis.

Chemistry & biology·2015

Same journal

Synthetic Peptides as cGMP-Independent Activators of cGMP-Dependent Protein Kinase Iα.

Chemistry & biology·2015

Same journal

Unraveling the B. pseudomallei Heptokinase WcbL: From Structure to Drug Discovery.

Chemistry & biology·2015

Same journal

Vitamin C as Cancer Destroyer, Investigating Sulfhydration, and the Variability in CFTR Interactome.

Chemistry & biology·2015

See all related articles

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 24, 2026

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

Published on: December 9, 2017

Expanding the genetic code for biological studies.

Qian Wang¹, Angela R Parrish, Lei Wang

¹The Jack H. Skirball Center for Chemical Biology and Proteomics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.

Chemistry & Biology

|March 26, 2009

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Genetically encoding unnatural amino acids allows for precise protein modification. This technology is expanding into eukaryotic cells for diverse biological research applications.

More Related Videos

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Published on: August 1, 2016

Optimizing the Genetic Incorporation of Chemical Probes into GPCRs for Photo-crosslinking Mapping and Bioorthogonal Chemistry in Live Mammalian Cells

Optimizing the Genetic Incorporation of Chemical Probes into GPCRs for Photo-crosslinking Mapping and Bioorthogonal Chemistry in Live Mammalian Cells

Published on: April 9, 2018

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 24, 2026

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

Published on: December 9, 2017

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Published on: August 1, 2016

Optimizing the Genetic Incorporation of Chemical Probes into GPCRs for Photo-crosslinking Mapping and Bioorthogonal Chemistry in Live Mammalian Cells

Optimizing the Genetic Incorporation of Chemical Probes into GPCRs for Photo-crosslinking Mapping and Bioorthogonal Chemistry in Live Mammalian Cells

Published on: April 9, 2018

Area of Science:

Biochemistry
Molecular Biology
Synthetic Biology

Background:

Genetic encoding of unnatural amino acids (UAAs) utilizes orthogonal tRNA-synthetase pairs for high-efficiency protein incorporation.
Over 40 UAAs have been site-specifically incorporated into proteins across various cell types, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.
UAAs introduce novel chemical and physical properties, enabling tailored protein manipulation.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the methodology and recent advancements in genetically encoding UAAs in eukaryotic cells.
To highlight diverse applications of UAAs in protein labeling, modification, structure-function studies, and activity regulation.
To showcase the potential of UAAs for generating proteins with novel properties.

Main Methods:

Utilizing orthogonal tRNA-synthetase pairs for site-specific UAA incorporation.
Expanding UAA technology to eukaryotic systems (e.g., yeast, mammalian cells).
Reviewing existing literature on UAA applications and methodologies.

Main Results:

Demonstrated high efficiency and fidelity in genetically encoding UAAs.
Successfully incorporated over 40 different UAAs into proteins.
Showcased successful application in eukaryotic cells, expanding the technology's reach.
Reported diverse applications including protein labeling, functional studies, and property generation.

Conclusions:

Genetic incorporation of UAAs is a powerful tool for protein engineering and biological investigation.
The technology's expansion to eukaryotic cells broadens its applicability for in vitro and in vivo studies.
UAAs offer new avenues for exploring and manipulating biological processes.