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Introduction to Nuclear Reprogramming

Introduction to Nuclear Reprogramming

Nuclear reprogramming is the process of switching gene expression of one cell type to that of another cell type, usually from a differentiated cell state to an undifferentiated cell state. Differentiation occurs during processes such as development and morphogenesis, tissue regeneration, and malignancy. Cells can also be artificially induced to reprogram their gene expression by techniques such as nuclear transfer, induced pluripotency, and cell fusion. Such techniques have many applications in...

Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Nuclear reprogramming is a process of transforming one cell type into an unrelated cell type by epigenetic changes that alter the cell’s original gene expression pattern. Such epigenetic changes force cells to express a different set of genes, which play a significant role in inducing transformation into other cell types. Nuclear reprogramming offers applications in reproductive cloning for livestock propagation and regenerative medicine — developing patient-specific cells for injury repair.

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Reprogramming alters the gene expression in somatic cells, transforming them into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells over several generations. Scientists can reprogram cells by introducing genes for four transcription factors—Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc (OSKM) by viral or non-viral methods. These factors are also known as Yamanaka factors after Shinya Yamanaka, who first generated iPS cells using mouse skin cells. Yamanaka was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2012 for this...

Chromatin Modification in iPS Cells

Chromatin Modification in iPS Cells

Chromatin modification alters gene expression; therefore, scientists can add histone-modifying enzymes, histone variants, and chromatin remodeling complexes to somatic cells to aid reprogramming into pluripotent stem (iPS) cells.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 24, 2026

Direct Reprogramming of Mouse Fibroblasts into Melanocytes

Direct Reprogramming of Mouse Fibroblasts into Melanocytes

Published on: August 27, 2021

Upping the ante: recent advances in direct reprogramming.

Lars U W Müller¹, George Q Daley, David A Williams

¹Department of Medicine, Division of Pediatric Hematology Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.

Molecular Therapy : the Journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy

|April 2, 2009

Summary

Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, derived from somatic cells, offer new avenues for disease modeling and regenerative medicine. Research focuses on improving reprogramming efficiency and safety for future therapeutic applications.

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Last Updated: Jun 24, 2026

Direct Reprogramming of Mouse Fibroblasts into Melanocytes

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RNA-based Reprogramming of Human Primary Fibroblasts into Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

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Published on: June 10, 2021

Area of Science:

Cell biology
Developmental biology
Stem cell research

Background:

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) first introduced tissue reprogramming over 50 years ago.
Direct reprogramming yields induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, similar to embryonic stem (ES) cells.
iPS cells hold promise for disease modeling and regenerative medicine.

Purpose of the Study:

Review the foundational concepts of pluripotency reestablishment.
Discuss advancements in enhancing reprogramming efficiency and safety.
Highlight progress in genetic modification-free reprogramming and preclinical models.

Main Methods:

Optimization of reprogramming factor combinations.
Identification of small molecules to augment reprogramming efficiency.
Assessment of target cell types for reprogramming efficacy.

Main Results:

Recent advances focus on improving the efficiency and safety of reprogramming.
New methods eliminate the need for stable genetic modification.
Preclinical models demonstrate the potential of ES/iPS cell-based regenerative medicine.

Conclusions:

Induced pluripotent stem cells offer significant potential for research and therapy.
Ongoing research aims to optimize reprogramming for clinical applications.
Eliminating genetic modification enhances the safety profile for regenerative medicine.