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Related Concept Videos

Menopause01:28

Menopause

Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...
Disorders of Hemostasis01:24

Disorders of Hemostasis

Hemostasis, the process that stops bleeding after a blood vessel injury, is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the circulatory system. However, disorders of hemostasis can disrupt this delicate balance, leading to either excessive clotting or bleeding. These disorders can be broadly classified into thromboembolic disorders and bleeding disorders.
Thromboembolic Disorders
Two factors primarily cause thromboembolic conditions.
Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.
Disorders of the Female Reproductive System01:24

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system can be affected by several disorders, including Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS), Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), endometriosis, and various forms of cancer. PMS and PMDD are cyclical conditions that cause physical and emotional distress, with symptoms that include edema, mood swings, and food cravings. PMDD is a more severe form of PMS characterized by increased symptom severity that peaks during the luteal phase and tends to improve or resolve shortly after...
Oogenesis02:07

Oogenesis

In human women, oogenesis produces one mature egg cell or ovum for every precursor cell that enters meiosis. This process differs in two unique ways from the equivalent procedure of spermatogenesis in males. First, meiotic divisions during oogenesis are asymmetric, meaning that a large oocyte (containing most of the cytoplasm) and minor polar body are produced as a result of meiosis I, and again following meiosis II. Since only oocytes will go on to form embryos if fertilized, this unequal...
Venous Thrombosis IV: Nursing Management01:30

Venous Thrombosis IV: Nursing Management

Nursing management begins with a thorough assessment of the patient's health history. Key factors include trauma to veins, peripherally inserted central catheters, varicose veins, recent pregnancy or childbirth, surgery, bacteremia, prolonged bed rest, atrial fibrillation, COPD, heart failure, cancer, coagulation disorders, myocardial infarction, spinal cord injury, stroke, prolonged travel, recent bone fractures, and dehydration. Review medication intake, particularly oral contraceptives,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 23, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Abnormal bleeding in postmenopausal hormone users-What do we know today?

Martha Hickey1, Manju Ambekar

  • 1King Edward Memorial Hospital, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia. mhickey@meddent.uwa.edu.au

Maturitas
|April 24, 2009
PubMed
Summary

Combined hormone therapy (HT) effectively treats menopause symptoms but can cause unscheduled bleeding. Understanding endometrial changes from HT is key to preventing this common side effect.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 23, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Area of Science:

  • Gynecology
  • Reproductive Endocrinology

Background:

  • Estrogen-containing hormone therapy (HT) remains effective for menopausal symptoms.
  • Unscheduled vaginal bleeding is a common, disruptive side effect of combined HT.
  • Current understanding of the mechanisms causing this bleeding is limited.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current evidence on mechanisms of unscheduled bleeding with combined HT.
  • To explore how combined HT alters the endometrium, predisposing to bleeding.
  • To identify potential targets for preventing or treating HT-induced bleeding.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of studies investigating endometrial changes with combined HT.
  • Analysis of evidence on endometrial vascular and stromal alterations.
  • Discussion of potential mechanisms underlying abnormal bleeding.

Main Results:

  • Combined HT appears to induce changes in endometrial blood vessels and stroma.
  • These changes may increase endometrial vascular fragility, leading to bleeding.
  • Few studies have comprehensively investigated these mechanisms.

Conclusions:

  • Improved understanding of HT-induced endometrial changes is needed.
  • Targeted therapies could prevent or resolve unscheduled bleeding.
  • This could enhance HT acceptability and patient outcomes.